Electric Aircraft
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An electric aircraft is an
aircraft An aircraft ( aircraft) is a vehicle that is able to flight, fly by gaining support from the Atmosphere of Earth, air. It counters the force of gravity by using either Buoyancy, static lift or the Lift (force), dynamic lift of an airfoil, or, i ...
powered by
electricity Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and motion of matter possessing an electric charge. Electricity is related to magnetism, both being part of the phenomenon of electromagnetism, as described by Maxwel ...
. Electric aircraft are seen as a way to reduce the
environmental effects of aviation Aircraft engines produce gases, aircraft noise, noise, and particulates from fossil fuel combustion, raising environment (biophysical), environmental concerns over their global effects and their effects on local air quality. Jet airliners co ...
, providing zero emissions and quieter flights. Electricity may be supplied by a variety of methods, the most common being batteries. Most have
electric motor An electric motor is a machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Most electric motors operate through the interaction between the motor's magnetic field and electric current in a electromagnetic coil, wire winding to gene ...
s driving propellers or turbines. Crewed flights in an electrically powered
airship An airship, dirigible balloon or dirigible is a type of aerostat (lighter-than-air) aircraft that can navigate through the air flying powered aircraft, under its own power. Aerostats use buoyancy from a lifting gas that is less dense than the ...
go back to the 19th century, and to 1917 for a tethered
helicopter A helicopter is a type of rotorcraft in which Lift (force), lift and thrust are supplied by horizontally spinning Helicopter rotor, rotors. This allows the helicopter to VTOL, take off and land vertically, to hover (helicopter), hover, and ...
. Electrically powered model aircraft have been flown at least since 1957, preceding the small
unmanned aerial vehicle An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) or unmanned aircraft system (UAS), commonly known as a drone, is an aircraft with no human pilot, crew, or passengers onboard, but rather is controlled remotely or is autonomous.De Gruyter Handbook of Dron ...
s (UAV) or drones used today. Small UAS could be used for parcel deliveries, and larger ones for long-endurance applications: aerial imagery, surveillance, telecommunications. The first crewed free flight by an electrically powered
aeroplane An airplane (American English), or aeroplane (Commonwealth English), informally plane, is a fixed-wing aircraft that is propelled forward by thrust from a jet engine, Propeller (aircraft), propeller, or rocket engine. Airplanes come in a vari ...
, the MB-E1, was made in 1973, and most crewed electric aircraft today are still only experimental prototypes. The world's first serially produced self-launching, manned electric aircraft with EASA type certification since 2006 and a
patent A patent is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the legal right to exclude others from making, using, or selling an invention for a limited period of time in exchange for publishing an sufficiency of disclosure, enabling discl ...
ed wing-integrated battery system, the Lange E1 Antares, completed its maiden flight in 1999; since 2004, more than 100 aircraft of this type have been delivered, totalling more than 165,000 electric flight hours to date (until 2022). Between 2015 and 2016, Solar Impulse 2 completed a circumnavigation of the Earth using solar power. Electric
VTOL A vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) aircraft is one that can takeoff and landing, take off and land vertically without relying on a runway. This classification can include a variety of types of aircraft including helicopters as well as thrust- ...
aircraft or personal air vehicles are being considered for Urban Air Mobility. Electric commercial airliners could lower operating costs.


History

By May 2018 almost 100 electric aircraft were known to be under development. This was up from 70 the previous year and included 60% from startups, 32% from aerospace incumbents, half of them major OEMs and 8% from academic, government organizations and non-aerospace companies, mainly from Europe (45%) and the U.S. (40%). Mostly urban air taxis (50%) and
general aviation General aviation (GA) is defined by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) as all civil aviation aircraft operations except for commercial air transport or aerial work, which is defined as specialized aviation services for other ...
aircraft (47%), a majority are battery-powered (73%), while some are hybrid-electric (31%), most of these being larger airliners. By May 2019, the number of known electric aircraft development programmes was closer to 170, with a majority of them aimed at the urban air taxi role. By 2022, about 100 electric aircraft designs were under development worldwide. By 2023, the number of sustainable aircraft concepts under development (not only electric) was estimated at up to 700.


Airships

The use of electricity for aircraft propulsion was first experimented with during the development of the
airship An airship, dirigible balloon or dirigible is a type of aerostat (lighter-than-air) aircraft that can navigate through the air flying powered aircraft, under its own power. Aerostats use buoyancy from a lifting gas that is less dense than the ...
in the latter part of the nineteenth century. On 8 October 1883, Gaston Tissandier flew the first electrically powered airship. The following year, Charles Renard and Arthur Krebs flew La France with a more powerful motor. Even with the lifting capacity of an airship, the heavy accumulators needed to store the electricity severely limited the speed and range of such early airships. Fully electric airships are expected to be available again by the 2030s.


Unmanned aircraft

In 1909, an electric free flight model was claimed to have been flown eight minutes, but this claim has been disputed by the builder of the first recorded electric radio-controlled model aircraft flight in 1957. Power density for electric flight was problematic even for small models. NASA's Pathfinder, Pathfinder Plus, Centurion, and
Helios In ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology, Helios (; ; Homeric Greek: ) is the god who personification, personifies the Sun. His name is also Latinized as Helius, and he is often given the epithets Hyperion ("the one above") an ...
were a series of solar and fuel cell system–powered unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) developed by AeroVironment, Inc. from 1983 until 2003 under
NASA The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA ) is an independent agencies of the United States government, independent agency of the federal government of the United States, US federal government responsible for the United States ...
's Environmental Research Aircraft and Sensor Technology program. On September 11, 1995, Pathfinder set an unofficial altitude record for solar-powered aircraft of during a 12-hour flight from NASA Dryden. After further modifications, the aircraft was moved to the U.S. Navy's Pacific Missile Range Facility (PMRF) on the Hawaiian island of Kauai. On July 7, 1997, Pathfinder raised the altitude record for solar–powered aircraft to , which was also the record for propeller–driven aircraft. On August 6, 1998, Pathfinder Plus raised the national altitude record to for solar-powered and propeller-driven aircraft. On August 14, 2001, Helios set an altitude record of – the record for FAI class U (experimental/new technologies), and FAI class U-1.d (remotely controlled UAV with a mass between ) as well as the altitude record for propeller–driven aircraft. On June 26, 2003, the Helios prototype broke up and fell into the Pacific Ocean off Hawaii after the aircraft encountered turbulence, ending the program. In 2005,
AC Propulsion AC Propulsion is a San Dimas, California, USA company founded in 1992 by Alan Cocconi, Wally Rippel, and Paul Carosa, that specializes in alternating current-based drivetrain systems for electric vehicles. It offers AC-induction traction motors. ...
flew an unmanned airplane named "SoLong" for 48 hours non-stop, propelled entirely by solar energy. This was the first such around-the-clock flight, on energy stored in the batteries mounted on the aircraft. The QinetiQ Zephyr is a lightweight solar-powered unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). As of 23 July 2010 it holds the endurance record for an unmanned aerial vehicle of over 2 weeks (336 hours). It is of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer construction, the 2010 version weighing (the 2008 version weighed ) with a span of (the 2008 version had a wingspan). During the day it uses sunlight to charge lithium-sulphur batteries, which power the aircraft at night. In July 2010 a Zephyr made a world record UAV endurance flight of 336 hours, 22 minutes and 8 seconds (more than two weeks) and also set an altitude record of for FAI class U-1.c (remotely controlled UAV with a weight between ).


Vertical flight

For a tethered device such as an air observation platform, it is possible to run the power up the tether. In an attempt to create a more practical solution than the clumsy balloons then in use, the Austro-Hungarian Petróczy-Kármán-Žurovec PKZ-1 electric-powered helicopter was flown in 1917. It had a specially designed continuous-rated electric motor made by
Austro-Daimler Austro-Daimler was an Austrian car manufacturer from 1899 until 1934. It was a subsidiary of the Germany, German ''Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft'' (DMG) until 1909. History In 1890, Eduard Bierenz was appointed as Austrian retailer. The company so ...
that was powered by a cable connected to a DC generator on the ground. However, electric motors were not yet powerful enough for such applications and the motor burned out after only a few flights. In 1964, William C. Brown at Raytheon flew a model helicopter that received all of the power needed for flight by microwave power transmission. The world's first large-scale all-electric tilt-rotor was the AgustaWestland Project Zero unmanned aerial vehicle technology demonstrator, which performed unmanned tethered fights on ground power in June 2011, less than six months after the company gave the official go-ahead. The first free-flying electric helicopter was the Solution F/Chretien Helicopter, developed by
Pascal Chretien Pascal Chrétien (born 7 April 1968) is a French-Australian commercial helicopter Pilot (aeronautics), pilot and engineer with degrees in electronics and aerospace who designed, built and test flew the world’s first crewed Electric aircraft#R ...
in Venelles, France. It went from computer-aided design concept on September 10, 2010, to first flight in August 2011, in under a year. In September 2016, Martine Rothblatt and Tier1 Engineering successfully tested an electric-powered helicopter. The five minute flight reached an altitude of with a peak speed of . The Robinson R44 helicopter was modified with two three-phase permanent magnet synchronous YASA Motors, weighing , plus 11 Lithium polymer batteries from Brammo weighing . It later flew for 20 minutes in 2016. On December 7, 2018, Tier 1 Engineering flew an electric, battery-powered R44 over at and an altitude of , setting a Guinness World Record for the farthest distance. In June 2017, Airbus presented its CityAirbus, an electrically powered
VTOL A vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) aircraft is one that can takeoff and landing, take off and land vertically without relying on a runway. This classification can include a variety of types of aircraft including helicopters as well as thrust- ...
aircraft demonstrator. The multirotor aircraft is intended to carry four passengers, with a pilot initially and to become self-piloted when regulations allow. Its first unmanned flight was scheduled for the end of 2018 with manned flights planned to follow in 2019. Type certification and commercial introduction are planned for 2023. Ingenuity, the NASA small uncrewed aerial system (sUAS) which flew on Mars in 2021 to become the first extraterrestrial aircraft, has a single pair of coaxial rotors. The Dragonfly rotorcraft lander should be the second aircraft and rotorcraft to operate on another astronomical object than Earth. It should be flying in the atmosphere of Titan starting around 2034. The VTOL capabilities is incorporated in order to move the lander and its sensors at various locations farther from the landing site.


Experimental demonstrators

On 21 October 1973, the Militky MB-E1, a Brditschka HB-3 motor glider converted by Fred Militky and piloted by Heino Brditschka, flew for 9 minutes from
Linz Linz (Pronunciation: , ; ) is the capital of Upper Austria and List of cities and towns in Austria, third-largest city in Austria. Located on the river Danube, the city is in the far north of Austria, south of the border with the Czech Repub ...
in Austria: the first electric aircraft to fly under its own power with a person on board, powered by Nickel–cadmium batteries (NiCad). NiCad batteries have a higher energy density than lead–acid batteries, needed to power a heavier than air aircraft. Following successful human-powered flight, a relaunched Kremer prize allowed the crew to store energy before takeoff. In the 1980s, several such designs stored electricity generated by pedalling, including the MIT Monarch and the Aerovironment Bionic Bat. The
Boeing The Boeing Company, or simply Boeing (), is an American multinational corporation that designs, manufactures, and sells airplanes, rotorcraft, rockets, satellites, and missiles worldwide. The company also provides leasing and product support s ...
-led FCD (fuel cell demonstrator) project uses a Diamond HK-36 Super Dimona motor glider as a research test bed for a hydrogen fuel cell powered light airplane. Successful flights took place in February and March 2008. The European Commission has financed many low TRL projects for innovative electric or hybrid propulsion aircraft. The ENFICA-FC is a project of the
European Commission The European Commission (EC) is the primary Executive (government), executive arm of the European Union (EU). It operates as a cabinet government, with a number of European Commissioner, members of the Commission (directorial system, informall ...
, to study and demonstrate an all-electric aircraft with fuel-cells as the main or auxiliary power system. During the three-year project, a fuel-cell based power system was designed and first flown in a Rapid 200FC ultralight aircraft on 20 May 2010. The first NASA Green Flight Challenge took place in 2011 and was won by a Pipistrel Taurus G4 on 3 October 2011. In 2013, Chip Yates demonstrated that the world's fastest electric airplane, a Long ESA, a modified Rutan Long-EZ, could outperform a gasoline-powered Cessna and other aircraft in a series of trials verified by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale. The Long ESA was found to be less expensive, have a higher maximum speed, and higher rate of climb, partly due to the ability of the aircraft to maintain performance at altitude as low air density does not impair engine performance. In 2017, Siemens used a modified
Extra EA-300 The Extra Flugzeugbau EA300 is a two-seat aerobatics, aerobatic monoplane capable of Unlimited category Competition aerobatics, competition. It was designed in 1987 in aviation, 1987 by Walter Extra, a German people, German aerobatic pilot, an ...
acrobatic airplane, the 330LE, to set two new records: on March 23 at the Dinslaken Schwarze Heide airfield in Germany, the aircraft reached a top speed of around over and the next day, it became the first glider towing electric aircraft. NASA was developing the X-57 Maxwell to demonstrate technology to reduce fuel use, emissions, and noise, but the program was cancelled due to problems with the propulsion system. Modified from a Tecnam P2006T, the X-57 will have 14 electric motors driving
propeller A propeller (often called a screw if on a ship or an airscrew if on an aircraft) is a device with a rotating hub and radiating blades that are set at a pitch to form a helical spiral which, when rotated, exerts linear thrust upon a working flu ...
s mounted on the wing leading edges. In July 2017, Scaled Composites is modifying a first P2006T by replacing the piston engines with electric motors, to fly early in 2018, then will move the motors to the wingtips to increase propulsive efficiency and finally will install the high aspect ratio wing with 12 smaller props. US/UK startup ZeroAvia develops zero-emissions fuel-cell propulsion systems for small aircraft, and tests its HyFlyer in Orkney supported by £2.7 million from the UK government.


Solar aircraft

On April 29, 1979, the Mauro Solar Riser became the first person-carrying, solar-powered aircraft to fly, with photovoltaic cells delivering at 30 volts and charging a small battery, which powered the motor. Following a 1.5-hour charge, the battery could power the aircraft for 3 to 5 minutes to reach a gliding altitude. It followed a successful model test in 1974, as solar cells were developed, at the same period than with NiCad batteries. Under the direction of Freddie To, an architect and member of the Kremer prize committee, the Solar One was designed by David Williams and produced by Solar-Powered Aircraft Developments. A motor-glider type aircraft originally built as a pedal-powered airplane to attempt the Channel crossing, the airplane proved too heavy to be successfully powered by human power and was then converted to solar power, using an electric motor driven by batteries that were charged before flight by a solar cell array on the wing. The maiden flight of Solar One took place at Lasham Airfield, Hampshire, on June 13, 1979. The MacCready Gossamer Penguin first flew carrying a pilot in 1980. The MacCready Solar Challenger was first flown in 1980, and in 1981 flew 163 miles from Pontoise Aerodrome, north of Paris, to Manston Royal Air Force Base in Manston, England, staying aloft 5 hours and 23 minutes, with pilot Stephen Ptacek at the controls. The human piloted Solair 1, developed by Günther Rochelt, flew in 1983 with notably improved performance. It employed 2499 wing-mounted solar cells. The German solar-powered aircraft "Icaré II" was designed and built by the institute of aircraft design (Institut für Flugzeugbau) of the University of Stuttgart in 1996. The leader of the project and often pilot of the aircraft is Rudolf Voit-Nitschmann, the head of the institute. The design won the Berblinger prize in 1996, the EAA Special Achievement Award in Oshkosh, the Golden Daidalos Medal of the German Aeroclub and the OSTIV-Prize in France in 1997. Solar Impulse 2 is powered by four electric motors. Energy from solar cells on the wings and horizontal stabilizer is stored in lithium polymer batteries and used to drive propellers. In 2012, the first Solar Impulse made the first intercontinental flight by a solar aircraft, flying from
Madrid Madrid ( ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in Spain, most populous municipality of Spain. It has almost 3.5 million inhabitants and a Madrid metropolitan area, metropolitan area population of approximately 7 million. It i ...
, Spain to
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, Morocco. Completed in 2014, Solar Impulse 2 carried more solar cells and more powerful motors, among other improvements. In March 2015, the aircraft took off on the first stage of a planned round-the-world trip, flying eastwards from
Abu Dhabi Abu Dhabi is the capital city of the United Arab Emirates. The city is the seat of the Abu Dhabi Central Capital District, the capital city of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, and the UAE's List of cities in the United Arab Emirates, second-most popu ...
, United Arab Emirates. Due to battery damage, the craft halted at
Hawaii Hawaii ( ; ) is an island U.S. state, state of the United States, in the Pacific Ocean about southwest of the U.S. mainland. One of the two Non-contiguous United States, non-contiguous U.S. states (along with Alaska), it is the only sta ...
, where its batteries were replaced. It resumed the circumnavigation in April 2016 and reached
Seville Seville ( ; , ) is the capital and largest city of the Spain, Spanish autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Andalusia and the province of Seville. It is situated on the lower reaches of the Guadalquivir, River Guadalquivir, ...
, Spain, in June 2016. The following month it returned to Abu Dhabi, completing its circumnavigation of the world.


General aviation

An application is as a sustaining motor or even a self-launching motor for gliders. The most common system is the front electric sustainer, which is used in over 240 gliders. The short range is not a problem as the motor is used only briefly, either to launch or to avoid an outlanding (an unplanned landing while soaring). The first commercially available, non-certified production electric aircraft, the Alisport Silent Club self-launching glider, flew in 1997. It is optionally driven by a DC electric motor running on of batteries that store of energy. The first certificate of airworthiness for an electric powered aircraft was granted to the Lange Antares 20E in 2003. Also an electric, self-launching glider/sailplane, with a DC/DC brushless motor and lithium-ion batteries, it can climb up to with fully charged cells. The first flight was in 2003. In 2011, the aircraft won the 2011 Berblinger competition. In the late 2000s, a Chinese manufacturer of radio-controlled models Yuneec International developed and tested several battery-powered manned fixed-wing aircraft, including E430, the first electric aircraft designed to be serially produced, but failed to commercialize them (only prototypes were built) and in the mid-2010s, turned to the lucrative consumer drone market. The Taurus Electro was the first two-seat electric aircraft to have ever flown, while the Taurus Electro G2 is the production version, that was introduced in 2011. Powered by a electric motor and lithium batteries for self-launching to an altitude of , after which the engine is retracted and the aircraft then soars as a sailplane. It is the first two-seat electric aircraft to have achieved series production. As pilot training emphasises short flights, several companies make, or have demonstrated, light aircraft suitable for initial flight training. The Airbus E-Fan was aimed at flight training but the project was cancelled. Pipistrel makes light sport electric aircraft such as the Pipistrel WATTsUP, a prototype of the Pipistrel Alpha Electro. The advantage of electric aircraft for flight training is the lower cost of electrical energy compared to aviation fuel. Noise and exhaust emissions are also reduced compared with combustion engines. The Bye Aerospace eFlyer 2 (formerly the Sun Flyer 2) is a light electric aircraft designed and under development by Bye Aerospace of Denver, Colorado. The aircraft was first publicly introduced on 11 May 2016, and first flew on 10 April 2018. On 10 June 2020, the Velis Electro variant of the two-seat Pipistrel Virus was the first electric aircraft to secure type certification, from the EASA. Powered by a electric motor developed with Emrax, it offers a payload of , a cruise speed of , and a 50 min endurance. Pipistrel plans to deliver over 30 examples in 2020, to be operated as a
trainer aircraft A trainer is a class of aircraft designed specifically to facilitate flight training of pilots and aircrews. The use of a dedicated trainer aircraft with additional safety features—such as tandem flight controls, forgiving flight characteristic ...
. On 12 October 2021, Diamond Aircraft announced the development of the e DA40, targeting a 2022 first flight and a 2023 EASA/FAA Part 23 certification, tailored to the flight training market. The two-seat aircraft is expected to be able to fly for up to 90 minutes, with 40% lower operating costs than piston power. The eDA40 has a planned three-seat variant for future release. The eDA40 had its initial flight on 20 July 2023. On the morning of June 3, 2025, the first-ever passenger flight of an electric-powered plane in North America landed at John F. Kennedy International Airport, when Kyle Clark, the founder and CEO of the Burlington, Vermont-based conmpany BETA Technologies, piloted the Alia CX300 to that airport's tarmack, concluding a 45-minute, 72-nautical mile-flight that took off from East Hampton. Clark founded BETA in 2017, and raised $1 billion in funding Qatar Investment Authority, Fidelity Investments and Amazon.com, and began work on the Alia CX300 in 2018. The plane features four modular propellers mounted atop the aircraft that allow it to take off vertically like a helicopter, though it can also do so horizontally like a conventional plane. It seats five people—a pilot and four passengers—and had completed tens of thousands of miles in flights, mostly out of a small airport in
Pittsburgh Pittsburgh ( ) is a city in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, United States, and its county seat. It is the List of municipalities in Pennsylvania#Municipalities, second-most populous city in Pennsylvania (after Philadelphia) and the List of Un ...
before landing at JFK. Its flight to that airport required it to be integrated into Class B airspace, the most tightly controlled airspace in the United States, which placed it in the same altitudes and approach speeds as commercial jets, and required Clark to respond to
air traffic control Air traffic control (ATC) is a service provided by ground-based air traffic controllers who direct aircraft on the ground and through a given section of controlled airspace, and can provide advisory services to aircraft in non-controlled air ...
without deviation or delay.


Airliner projects

The NASA Electric Aircraft Testbed (NEAT) is a NASA reconfigurable testbed in Plum Brook Station, Ohio, used to design, develop, assemble and test electric aircraft power systems, from a small, one or two person aircraft up to airliners. NASA research agreements (NRA) are granted to develop electric-propulsion components. That programme was cancelled in 2023. In September 2017, UK budget carrier EasyJet announced it was developing an electric 180-seater for 2027 with Wright Electric. Founded in 2016, US Wright Electric built a two-seat proof-of-concept with of batteries, and believes they can be scaled up with substantially lighter new battery chemistries. A range would suffice for 20% of Easyjet passengers. Wright Electric will then develop a 10-seater, eventually an at least 120 passengers single aisle, short haul airliner and targets 50% lower noise and 10% lower costs. Jeffrey Engler, CEO of Wright Electric, estimates that commercially viable electric planes will lead to around a 30% reduction in energy costs. On March 19, 2018,
Israel Aerospace Industries Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI; ), is Israel's major aerospace and aviation manufacturer, producing aerial and astronautic systems for both military and civilian usage. It has 14,000 employees as of 2021. IAI is state-owned by the government ...
announced it plans to develop a short-haul electric airliner, building on its small UAS electric power systems experience. It could develop it in-house, or with a startup like Israeli Eviation, U.S. Zunum Aero or Wright Electric. Australia-based MagniX has developed an electric Cessna 208 Caravan with a motor for flight durations up to an hour. The company's Magni5 electric motor produces continuously , peak at 2,500 rpm at 95% efficiency with a dry mass, a 5 kW/kg power density, competing with the , Siemens SP260D for the Extra 330LE. By September 2018, a electric motor with a propeller had been tested on a Cessna iron bird. The Caravan first flew in 2020 and by 2022 MagniX estimates electric aircraft will have ranges of by 2024. The motor ran on a test dynamometer for 1,000 hours. The iron bird is a Caravan forward fuselage used as a test bed, with the original Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6 turboprop engine replaced by an electric motor, inverter and a liquid-cooling system, including radiators, driving a Cessna 206 propeller. The production motor will produce at 1,900 rpm, down from the test motor's 2,500 rpm, allowing the installation without a reduction gearbox. On 28 May 2020, the MagniX electric-powered nine-passenger Cessna 208B ''eCaravan'' flew on electric power, towards commercial operation certification. A 560-kW (750-hp) MagniX electric motor was installed in a de Havilland Canada DHC-2 Beaver seaplane. Harbour Air, based in
British Columbia British Columbia is the westernmost Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada. Situated in the Pacific Northwest between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains, the province has a diverse geography, with rugged landscapes that ...
, was hoping to introduce the aircraft in commercial service in 2021, for trips under 30 minutes initially, until range increases as better batteries are introduced. On December 10, 2019, it made its first flight of four minutes duration from the
Fraser River The Fraser River () is the longest river within British Columbia, Canada, rising at Fraser Pass near Blackrock Mountain (Canada), Blackrock Mountain in the Rocky Mountains and flowing for , into the Strait of Georgia just south of the City of V ...
near
Vancouver Vancouver is a major city in Western Canada, located in the Lower Mainland region of British Columbia. As the List of cities in British Columbia, most populous city in the province, the 2021 Canadian census recorded 662,248 people in the cit ...
. The normally fitted Pratt & Whitney R-985 Wasp Junior piston engine of the six-passenger Beaver was replaced by a magni500, with swappable batteries, allowing 30 minute flights with a 30-minute reserve. By April 2022, flight testing of a certifiable version through a STC was delayed until late 2023, to carry four passengers and a pilot on 30 minute flights with a 30-minute reserve. Magnix is seeking FAA certification for its 640 kW (850shp) Magni650 aircraft engine, while battery provider H55 (a spin-off from Solar Impulse) is pursuing EASA approval. A demonstrator for the German Scylax E10 10-seater should fly in 2022. It should be used by FLN Frisia Luftverkehr to connect East Frisian islands with its range and short takeoff and landing distance. On 23 September 2020,
Gothenburg Gothenburg ( ; ) is the List of urban areas in Sweden by population, second-largest city in Sweden, after the capital Stockholm, and the fifth-largest in the Nordic countries. Situated by the Kattegat on the west coast of Sweden, it is the gub ...
-based Heart Aerospace presented its ES-19 design, a 19-seat all-electric commercial aircraft planned to fly by mid-2026. With a conventional aluminium airframe and wing, its planned range is 400 km (222 nmi) and expects to operate from runways as short as . Initially targeting airlines operating in the
Nordic countries The Nordic countries (also known as the Nordics or ''Norden''; ) are a geographical and cultural region in Northern Europe, as well as the Arctic Ocean, Arctic and Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic oceans. It includes the sovereign states of Denm ...
, Heart has received "expressions of interest" for 147 ES-19 aircraft worth about €1.1 billion or US$1.3 billion (€ million or $ million each) from at least eight airlines. Backed by Swedish venture capitalist EQT Ventures, Nordic governments and the
European Union The European Union (EU) is a supranational union, supranational political union, political and economic union of Member state of the European Union, member states that are Geography of the European Union, located primarily in Europe. The u ...
, Heart was initially funded by the Swedish innovation agency Vinnova and is an alumnus of Silicon Valley start-up accelerator
Y Combinator Y Combinator, LLC (YC) is an American technology startup accelerator and venture capital firm launched in March 2005 which has been used to launch more than 5,000 companies. The accelerator program started in Boston and Mountain View, Californi ...
. On 22 March 2021,
Toulouse Toulouse (, ; ; ) is a city in southern France, the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Haute-Garonne department and of the Occitania (administrative region), Occitania region. The city is on the banks of the Garonne, River Garonne, from ...
-based Aura Aero announced the development of its ERA (Electric Regional Aircraft), a 19-passenger electric aircraft, planned to be certified in 2026.


Environmental effects of aviation

The
environmental effects of aviation Aircraft engines produce gases, aircraft noise, noise, and particulates from fossil fuel combustion, raising environment (biophysical), environmental concerns over their global effects and their effects on local air quality. Jet airliners co ...
on
climate change Present-day climate change includes both global warming—the ongoing increase in Global surface temperature, global average temperature—and its wider effects on Earth's climate system. Climate variability and change, Climate change in ...
have become a major driving force for the development of electric aircraft, with a zero-emissions electric powertrain being the goal for some development teams. Aviation accounts for 2.4% of all fossil fuel derived emissions, and its emissions of air transportation altogether increased by 32% between 2013 and 2018. While estimating aviation's non- effects on climate change is complex, NOx and contrails could increase this responsibility to 3.5%. Other benefits are the potential for noise reduction, in an industry with a severe
noise pollution Noise pollution, or sound pollution, is the propagation of noise or sound with potential harmful effects on humans and animals. The source of outdoor noise worldwide is mainly caused by machines, transport and propagation systems.Senate Publi ...
and abatement problem.


Offboard power supply

Mechanisms for supplying the necessary electricity without storing all of it onboard include: *
Solar cell A solar cell, also known as a photovoltaic cell (PV cell), is an electronic device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by means of the photovoltaic effect.
s convert sunlight directly into electricity using photovoltaic materials. *
Microwave Microwave is a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths shorter than other radio waves but longer than infrared waves. Its wavelength ranges from about one meter to one millimeter, corresponding to frequency, frequencies between 300&n ...
energy that is beamed from a remote transmitter. * Power cables connected to a ground-based electrical supply.


Solar cells

A
solar cell A solar cell, also known as a photovoltaic cell (PV cell), is an electronic device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by means of the photovoltaic effect.
converts sunlight directly into electricity, either for direct power or temporary storage. The power output of solar cells is low and requires that many be connected together, which limits their use. Typical solar panels running at 15–20% conversion efficiency (sunlight energy to electrical power) produce about in direct sunlight. Usable areas are further limited as output from a poorly performing panel impacts the output of all the panels on its circuit, meaning they all require similar conditions, including being at a similar angle to the sun, and not being masked by shadow. Between 2010 and 2020, solar power modules have declined in cost by 90% and continue to drop by 13–15% per year. Solar cell efficiency has also risen substantially, from 2% in 1955 to 20% in 1985, and some experimental systems now exceed 44%. However, most of the technologies at these high efficiencies have only been possible under laboratory settings and not at full-scale production level. The free availability of sunlight makes solar power attractive for high-altitude, long-endurance applications, where the cold and reduced atmospheric interference make them significantly more efficient than on the ground. The drop in the dry-air temperature as altitude increases, called the environmental lapse rate (ELR), averages 6.49 °C/km (memorized in pilot training as 1.98 °C/1,000 ft or 3.56 °F/1,000 feet) so that temperature for a typical airliner's cruising altitude of around will be substantially lower than at ground level. Night flying, such for endurance flights and with aircraft providing 24 hour coverage over an area typically require a backup storage system, which is charged during the day from surplus power, and supplies power during the hours of darkness.


Microwaves

Power beaming of electromagnetic energy such as
microwave Microwave is a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths shorter than other radio waves but longer than infrared waves. Its wavelength ranges from about one meter to one millimeter, corresponding to frequency, frequencies between 300&n ...
s relies on a ground-based power source. However, compared to using a power cable, power beaming allows the aircraft to move laterally and carries a much lower weight penalty, particularly as altitude increases. The technology has only been demonstrated on small models and awaits practical development at larger scales.


External power cables

For powered vehicles replacing tethered aerostats, an electrical power cable can be connected to a ground-based supply, such as an electric generator or the local power grid. At low altitudes this avoids having to lift batteries, and was used by the experimental Petróczy-Kármán-Žurovec PKZ-1 observation vehicle of 1917. However the higher it flies, the heavier the length of cable it lifts becomes.


Power storage

Mechanisms for storing the necessary electricity include: * Batteries which use a chemical reaction to generate electricity which is reversed when recharged. *
Fuel cell A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy of a fuel (often hydrogen fuel, hydrogen) and an oxidizing agent (often oxygen) into electricity through a pair of redox reactions. Fuel cells are different from most bat ...
s consume fuel and an oxidizer in a chemical reaction to generate electricity, they need to be refueled, typically with hydrogen.


Batteries

Batteries are the most common onboard
energy storage Energy storage is the capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time to reduce imbalances between energy demand and energy production. A device that stores energy is generally called an Accumulator (energy), accumulator or Batte ...
component of electric aircraft, due to their relatively high storage capacity. Batteries first powered airships in the nineteenth century but the lead–acid batteries were very heavy and it was not until the arrival of other chemistries, such as nickel–cadmium (NiCd) later in the twentieth century, that batteries became practical for heavier-than-air aircraft. Modern batteries are mostly rechargeable types based on lithium technologies. Lithium polymer batteries (LiPo), a type of lithium-ion batteries (LIB), have long been applied in unmanned flight for their light weight and rechargeability. However, their energy density limits their application mostly to being drone batteries. Increasing maximum time of flight by simply designing larger aircraft using larger batteries is inefficient, because of the payload-range compromise. After a certain increase in battery weight, there are diminishing returns through the mass penalty not outweighing the increase in battery specific energy. There is a similar trade-off between the maximum range and number of passengers. Computational tools have been used to model this trend, predicting that a small-scale electric aircraft of average weight (1500 kg) and average energy density (150 Wh/kg) could travel a range of ~80 mi with one passenger, ~60 mi with two, and less than ~30 mi with three. In 2017, the power available from batteries was estimated at 170 Wh/kg, 145 Wh/kg at the shaft including the system efficiency, while a
gas turbine A gas turbine or gas turbine engine is a type of Internal combustion engine#Continuous combustion, continuous flow internal combustion engine. The main parts common to all gas turbine engines form the power-producing part (known as the gas gene ...
extracted 6,545 Wh/kg of shaft power from an 11,900 Wh/kg fuel. In 2018, lithium-ion batteries including packaging and accessories were estimated to give 160 Wh/kg while aviation fuel gave 12,500 Wh/kg. In 2018, the specific energy of electricity storage was still only 2% of aviation fuel. This 1:50 ratio makes electric propulsion impractical for long-range aircraft, as a mission for an all-electric, 12-passenger aircraft would require a six-fold increase in battery power density. That said, battery-electric motors have a higher efficiency (~90%) than most jet engines (~50%), which can be further exploited through emerging battery chemistries. To be feasible for electric aircraft application, it is essential that power storage be improved. Energy density is widely recognized to be the bottleneck for zero-emission electric powertrain. Another limitation is the discharge rate due to demand-pack energy ratio and sensitive mission segments, as the discharge C-rate for take-off is 4C while it is almost 5C for landing. Electric aircraft have additional heat generation and end-of-life needs, requiring novel thermal management strategies, power-fade capabilities and battery pack failure modes. As of 2019, the best Li-ion batteries achieved 250–300 Wh/kg, sufficient for a small aircraft, while a regional airliner would have needed a 500 Wh/kg battery pack and an Airbus A320-sized single-aisle would need 2 kWh/kg. Electric power is only suitable for small aircraft while for large passenger aircraft, an improvement of the energy density by a factor 20 compared to li-ion batteries would be required. Such batteries can reduce the overall operating costs for some short-range flights. For example, the electricity used in the Harbour Air Beavers costs them around $ Canadian per kWh compared to $2.00 per liter for gas, providing of energy with a 44 MJ/kg fuel and a 0.75 density Avgas, $ per chemical kWh or $ per shaft kWh with an efficiency of one third.
Jet fuel Jet fuel or aviation turbine fuel (ATF, also abbreviated avtur) is a type of aviation fuel designed for use in aircraft powered by Gas turbine, gas-turbine engines. It is colorless to straw-colored in appearance. The most commonly used fuels for ...
is cheaper and large gas turbine are more efficient, though. In 2021, beyond-lithium-ion technologies such as Solid-state battery ( lithium-sulfur, LSB) and lithium-air batteries (LAB) have become increasingly promising areas of research for more competitive battery-electric aircraft performance. The SAE International AE-7D committee was formed by Electro.Aero in 2018 to standardise electric aircraft charging and energy storage. One of the first documents developed was the AS6968 standard for sub-megawatt electric aircraft charging of electric aircraft. The AE-7D committee is also developing Aerospace Information Report AIR7357 for megawatt power level charging. Some airports have charging stations for
electric car An electric car or electric vehicle (EV) is a passenger car, passenger automobile that is propelled by an electric motor, electric traction motor, using electrical energy as the primary source of propulsion. The term normally refers to a p ...
s which can also charge aircraft.


Ultracapacitors

An ultracapacitor is a hybrid electrochemical energy storage system bridging batteries and capacitors, and has some advantages over batteries in being able to charge and discharge much faster with higher peak currents, while not being as limited in the number of charge-discharge cycles, as the reaction is not just chemical but also electrical. Their energy density, typically around 5 Wh/kg, is however well below that of batteries, and they are considerably more expensive, even when their longer lifespan is factored in.


Fuel cells

A
fuel cell A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy of a fuel (often hydrogen fuel, hydrogen) and an oxidizing agent (often oxygen) into electricity through a pair of redox reactions. Fuel cells are different from most bat ...
(FC) uses the reaction between two chemicals such as
hydrogen Hydrogen is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol, symbol H and atomic number 1. It is the lightest and abundance of the chemical elements, most abundant chemical element in the universe, constituting about 75% of all baryon, normal matter ...
and
oxygen Oxygen is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol, symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the chalcogen group (periodic table), group in the periodic table, a highly reactivity (chemistry), reactive nonmetal (chemistry), non ...
to create electricity, much like a
liquid-propellant rocket A liquid-propellant rocket or liquid rocket uses a rocket engine burning liquid rocket propellant, liquid propellants. (Alternate approaches use gaseous or Solid-propellant rocket , solid propellants.) Liquids are desirable propellants because th ...
motor, but generating electricity in a controlled chemical reaction, instead of thrust. While the aircraft must carry the hydrogen (or a similar fuel), with its own complications and risks, the oxygen can be obtained from the atmosphere.


Propulsion


Electric motors

Almost all electric aircraft to date have been powered by
electric motor An electric motor is a machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Most electric motors operate through the interaction between the motor's magnetic field and electric current in a electromagnetic coil, wire winding to gene ...
s driving thrust-generating
propeller A propeller (often called a screw if on a ship or an airscrew if on an aircraft) is a device with a rotating hub and radiating blades that are set at a pitch to form a helical spiral which, when rotated, exerts linear thrust upon a working flu ...
s or lift-generating rotors. While the batteries weigh more than the equivalent in fuel, electric motors weigh less than their piston-engine counterparts and in smaller aircraft used for shorter flights, can partly offset the disparity between electric and gasoline energy densities. Electric motors also do not lose power with altitude, unlike internal-combustion engines, avoiding the need for complex and costly measures used to prevent this, such as the use of turbochargers. The experimental Extra 330LE have a Siemens SP260D motor weighing 50 kg, with a kWh battery pack, for an aircraft weight of 1,000 kg. It replaces a Lycoming AEIO-580 piston engine weighing 202 kg. The piston-engine Extra 330 empty weight is 677 kg, kg without the engine. The Lycoming engine has a fuel consumption of per hour when outputting , or kg/kWh: it needs kg of fuel to output the same 37.2 kWh. Besides the motor itself, an aircraft weight is hampered by the necessary energy reserves: a 19-seat aircraft needs the mandatory IFR reserves of 5% route contingency, the flight to a 100 nmi alternate plus 30 minutes of holding before landing – 308 kg of fuel for a turboprop, or 4,300 kg of 250 Wh/kg batteries, similar to a current 19-seater empty weight. An electric propulsion system also includes a power inverter, while fuel engines have a fuel system themselves. The experimental magniX magni500 electric motor weighs , while the certified Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-114 weighs , both powering the Cessna 208 Caravan. The increase in power, combined with Supplemental Type Certificate (STC) modifications can offset the weight of the batteries by increasing the airplane's gross operating weight, including the landing weight. Aircraft that use fossil fuels are lighter when they land, which allows the structure to be lighter. With a battery powered aircraft, the weight remains the same, and so may require reinforcement.


Hybrid power

A hybrid electric aircraft is an
aircraft An aircraft ( aircraft) is a vehicle that is able to flight, fly by gaining support from the Atmosphere of Earth, air. It counters the force of gravity by using either Buoyancy, static lift or the Lift (force), dynamic lift of an airfoil, or, i ...
with a hybrid electric powertrain. It typically takes off and lands under clean and quiet electric power, and cruises under conventional piston or jet engine power. This makes long flights practical, while reducing their carbon footprint. By May 2018, there were over 30 projects, and short-haul hybrid-electric airliners were envisioned from 2032. The most advanced are the Zunum Aero 10-seater, the Airbus E-Fan X demonstrator,
AirbusRolls-Royce

Siemens
the VoltAero Cassio, UTC is modifying a Bombardier Dash 8, while the Ampaire Electric EEL prototype first flew on 6 June 2019.


Magnetohydrodynamics

In November 2018, MIT engineers achieved the first free flight with a model aircraft having no moving parts, the EAD Airframe Version 2. It is propelled by creating an ion wind using magnetohydrodynamics (MHD). MHD has been used to achieve vertical lift in the past, but only by cabling up the MHD ion generator system to an external power supply.


Shipments

The following table summarizes electric aircraft shipments worldwide by manufacturer.


List of battery-electric aircraft


See also

* Electric boat *
Electric vehicle An electric vehicle (EV) is a motor vehicle whose propulsion is powered fully or mostly by electricity. EVs encompass a wide range of transportation modes, including road vehicle, road and rail vehicles, electric boats and Submersible, submer ...
*
Solar energy Solar energy is the radiant energy from the Sun's sunlight, light and heat, which can be harnessed using a range of technologies such as solar electricity, solar thermal energy (including solar water heating) and solar architecture. It is a ...
*
VTOL A vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) aircraft is one that can takeoff and landing, take off and land vertically without relying on a runway. This classification can include a variety of types of aircraft including helicopters as well as thrust- ...


References


External links

* {{DEFAULTSORT:Electric Aircraft Energy conservation
Aircraft An aircraft ( aircraft) is a vehicle that is able to flight, fly by gaining support from the Atmosphere of Earth, air. It counters the force of gravity by using either Buoyancy, static lift or the Lift (force), dynamic lift of an airfoil, or, i ...
Renewable energy technology Aviation and the environment