Dutch Phonology

Dutch phonology is similar to that of other West Germanic languages, especially Afrikaans and West Frisian.

Standard Dutch has two main ''de facto'' pronunciation standards: Northern and Belgian. Northern Standard Dutch is the most prestigious accent in the Netherlands. It is associated with high status, education and wealth. Although its speakers seem to be concentrated mainly in the densely-populated Randstad in the provinces of North Holland, South Holland, and Utrecht, it is often impossible to tell where in the country its speakers were born or raised. Therefore, it cannot be considered a regional dialect in the Netherlands. Belgian Standard Dutch is used by the vast majority of Flemish journalists and is sometimes called ''VRT-Nederlands'' ("VRT Dutch"; formerly ''BRT-Nederlands'' "BRT Dutch"), after VRT, the national public broadcaster for the Flemish Region.

Consonants

The following table shows the consonant phonemes of Dutch:

Obstruents

* The glottal stop is not a phoneme because it occurs only optionally in a few specific predictable environments. It often occurs at the beginning of vowel-initial words after a pause. The glottal stop can also separate vowel articulations within words, such as in ''IQ-onderzoek'', ''milieu-imago'', ''toe-eigenen'', ''coöperatie'', and ''beaam''. This is particularly common in the case of compounds where both elements have the same vowel at the syllable-boundary: ''hippie-ideaal'', ''mee-eten'', ''glijijzer'', ''bui-uitdoving'', ''kilo-ohm'', ''trouwauto'', ''na-apen''.
* Apart from , all alveolar consonants are laminal and may be realised as denti-alveolar in Belgium.
* and are fully voiced.
* is not a native phoneme of Dutch and occurs only in loanwords like ''goal'' ('goal') but is analyzed as a phoneme because minimal pairs exist: ''goal'' and ''kool'' ('cabbage'). Additionally, in native words, occurs as an allophone of when it undergoes regressive voicing assimilation like in ''zakdoek'' .
* In the north, often devoices and merges with ; the quality of that merged sound has been variously described as a voiceless post-velar or uvular fricative.
* In the south, the distinction between and is generally preserved as velar or post-palatal . Some southern speakers may alternate between the velar and post-palatal articulation, depending on the backness of the preceding or succeeding vowel. Post-velar and uvular variants are called ''harde g'' "hard g", while the post-palatal and velar variants are called ''zachte g'' "soft g". There is also a third variant, called ''zwakke harde g'' "weak hard g", in which is realised as and is realised as and is used in Zeeland and West Flanders, which are h-dropping areas, so that does not merge with glottal variants of and .
* In the Netherlands, can devoice and merge with . According to , hardly any speakers of Northern Standard Dutch consistently contrast with .
* In low-prestige varieties of Netherlandic Dutch (such as the Amsterdam accent) also can devoice and merge with .
* Speakers who devoice and may also hypercorrectively voice and : ''concert'' "concert" may thus be compared to the more usual .
* Some speakers pronounce as a voiceless . Some dialects, particularly those from the southwest, exhibit h-dropping.
* In the Netherlands, and may have only mid-to-low pitched friction, and for many Netherlandic speakers, they are retracted. In Belgium, they are more similar to English .
* The sequences and are often assimilated to palatalised , alveolo-palatal , postalveolar or similar realisations.
* The onset sequence is commonly realised as a tenuis alveolo-palatal affricate , or intervocalically as a stop or fricative , barring some loanwords and names.
* The onset sequence is commonly realised as a tenuis alveolo-palatal affricate . or intervocalically as a stop or fricative , barring some loanwords and names.
* Before , is realised as a voiceless post-palatal affricate .
* are not native phonemes of Dutch and usually occur only in borrowed words like ''show'' and ''bagage'' "baggage". Depending on the speaker and the position in the word, they may or may not be distinct from the assimilated realisations of the clusters . If they are not distinct, they have the same range of realisations as noted above.
* Unlike in English and German, Dutch voiceless stops are unaspirated in all positions: both English ''tip'' and German are , but Dutch is with an unaspirated .

Sonorants

* and assimilate their articulation to a following labial obstruent:
** before labials they merge into .
** before bilabials they merge into .
** this occurs across word-boundaries in allegro speech.
* further assimilates to following dorsal consonants :
** before velars , it merges into .
***The realisation of in turn depends on how a following velar fricative is realised. For example, it is uvular for speakers who realise as uvulars.
** before , it is realised as . That occurs also before or and, under assimilation, before and .
** this occurs across word-boundaries in allegro speech.
* The exact pronunciation of varies regionally:
** In the North, is 'clear' before vowels and 'dark' before consonants and pauses. Intervocalic tends to be clear except after the open back vowels . However, some speakers use the dark variant in all intervocalic contexts.
** Some accents, such as in Amsterdam and Rotterdam, have dark in all positions. Conversely, some accents in the eastern regions, along the German border (for example around Nijmegen), as well as some speakers of Standard Belgian, have clear in all contexts.
** The quality of dark varies:
*** In the North, it is pharyngealised , e.g. .
**** In a final position, many of such speakers produce a strongly-pharyngealised vocoid with no alveolar contact () instead, .
*** In Belgium, it is either velarised velarised , e.g. ; or post-palatalised , e.g.
* The realisation of varies considerably from dialect to dialect and even between speakers in the same dialect area:
** Coronal realisations are the original pronunciation of the phoneme, spearheaded by the alveolar trill historically and the alveolar tap as common allophone.
*** Fricative realisation can also nowadays be heard: authors do not say where exactly it is used;. word finally and before /s/, is not uncommon, e.g.
** Uvular continuants are rising in popularity, the uvular trill serving as flagship. It is found particularly in the central and southern dialect areas and increasingly in the Randstad. e.g. .
*** The coastal dialects of South Holland produce a voiced uvular fricative .
*** In the center of the country, more specifically in Amsterdam and especially Nijmegen, as well as in Flanders, the voiced uvular approximant is a minority.
*** Syllable-finally, they may be vocalised to , much as in German, which is more common in the (south)eastern areas ( Limburg, southeast Brabantian, Overijssel), e.g. .
** The velar bunched approximant (the ''Gooise R'', which sounds similar to the retroflex approximant) is found at the end of a syllable in the pronunciation of some speakers in the Netherlands, especially those from the Randstad, but not in Belgium. Its use has been increasing in recent years. e.g.
** Other variants include in North Brabant and North Holland.
* The realisation of also varies by area and less so by speaker:
** The main realisation is a labiodental approximant , which is found in central and northern Netherlands.
** Speakers in southern Netherlands and Belgium use a bilabial approximant . It is like but without velarisation.
*** may join the allophony.
** In Suriname and among immigrant populations, is usual.
* An epenthetic may be inserted between and word-final . Thus ''melk'' "milk" may be pronounced . That may extend to compounds: ''melkboer'' "milkman". Although this pronunciation is mistakenly thought of as non-standard, it is found in all types of Dutch, including the standard varieties. There is also another type of -insertion that occurs word-medially (e.g. ''helpen'' "to help"), which is considered non-standard.

In many areas, the final 'n' of the ending ''-en'' (originally , with a variety of meanings) is pronounced only if a word is being individually stressed, which makes ''-en'' words homophonous with otherwise-identical forms ending in ''-e'' alone. The ''-n'' is dropped both word-finally and, in compound words, word-internally. This pronunciation can be morphologically sensitive and serve to distinguish words since the ''-n'' is dropped only when it is part of the distinct ending ''-en'', not when it is in a word that has an indivisible stem that happens to end in ''-en''. Thus, the ''teken'' of ''ik teken'' ('I draw') always retains its ''-n'' because it is part of an indivisible stem, but ''teken'' ('ticks') drops it since it is part of a plural ending. Such pairs (''teken'' = 'draw'; ''teken'' = 'ticks'),despite being written identically, are therefore not homophones in dialects that drop ''-n'' although they are written identically.

Final ''-n'' is retained in the North East ( Low Saxon) and the South West (East and West Flemish), where it is the schwa that disappears instead. This creates a syllabic or (after velars) syllabic sounds: ''laten'' ; ''maken'' . Some Low Saxon dialects that have uvular pronunciations of and (or one of them) also have a syllabic uvular nasal, as in ''lagen'' and/or ''lachen''

Final devoicing and assimilation

Dutch devoices all obstruents at the ends of words, which is partly reflected in the spelling. The voiced "z" in plural becomes ('house') in singular. Also, becomes ('dove'). The other cases are always written with the voiced consonant, but a devoiced one is actually pronounced: the "d" in plural is retained in singular spelling ('beard'), but the pronunciation of the latter is , and plural has singular ('rib'), pronounced .

Because of assimilation, the initial of the next word is often also devoiced: ''het vee'' ('the cattle') is . The opposite may be true for other consonants: ''ik ben'' ('I am') .

Example words for consonants

Vowels

Dutch has an extensive vowel inventory consisting of thirteen plain vowels and at least three diphthongs. Vowels can be grouped as front unrounded, front rounded, central and back. They are also traditionally distinguished by length or tenseness. The vowels are included in one of the diphthong charts below because Northern Standard Dutch realises them as diphthongs, but they behave phonologically like the other long monophthongs.

Monophthongs

* Dutch vowels can be classified as lax and tense, checked and free or short and long. Phonetically however, the close vowels are as short as the phonological lax/short vowels unless they occur before .
* Phonologically, can be classified as either close or close-mid. Carlos Gussenhoven classifies them as the former, whereas Geert Booij says that they are the latter and classifies and the non-native mid vowels as open-mid.
* has been traditionally transcribed with , but modern sources tend to use or instead. Beverley Collins and Inger Mees write this vowel with .
* The phonemic status of is not clear. Phonetically, a vowel of the type appears before nasals as an allophone of , e.g. in ''jong'' ('young'). This vowel can also be found in certain other words, such as ''op'' ('on'), which can form a near-minimal pair with ''mop'' ('joke'). This, however, is subject to both individual and geographical variation, compare ''song'' ~ ''gong'' ~ ''dong'' from the same speaker.
* Many speakers feel that and belong to the same phoneme, with being its unstressed variant. This is reflected in spelling errors produced by Dutch children, for example for ''binnen'' ('inside'). Adding to this, the two vowels have different phonological distribution; for example, can occur word-finally, while (along with other lax vowels) cannot. In addition, the word-final allophone of is a close-mid front vowel with some rounding , a sound that is similar to .
* The native tense vowels are long in stressed syllables and short elsewhere. The non-native oral vowels appear only in stressed syllables and thus are always long.
* The native as well as the non-native nasal are sometimes transcribed without the length marks, as .
* The non-native occur only in stressed syllables. In unstressed syllables, they are replaced by the closest native vowel. For instance, verbs corresponding to the nouns ''analyse'' ('analysis'), ''centrifuge'' ('spinner'), and ''zone'' ('zone') are ''analyseren'' ('to analyze'), ''centrifugeren'' ('to spin-dry'), and ''zoneren'' ('to divide into zones').
* is extremely rare, and the only words of any frequency in which it occurs are ''oeuvre'' , ''manoeuvre'' and ''freule''. In the more common words, tends to be replaced with the native , whereas can be replaced by either or (Belgians typically select the latter).
* The non-native nasal vowels occur only in loanwords from French. are often nativised as , or , depending on the place of articulation of the following consonant. For instance, ''restaurant'' ('restaurant') and ''pardon'' ('excuse me') are often nativised as and , respectively. is extremely rare, just like its oral counterpart,It is listed by only some sources: and . and the only word of any frequency in which it occurs is ''parfum'' ('perfume'), often nativised as or .
* The non-native is listed only by some sources. It occurs in words such as ''cast'' ('cast').

The following sections describe the phonetic quality of Dutch monophthongs in detail.

Close vowels

* is near the canonical value of the IPA symbol . The Standard Belgian realisation has also been described as close-mid . In regional Standard Dutch, the realisation may be different: for example, in Antwerp it is closer, more like , whereas in places like Dordrecht, Nijmegen, West and East Flanders the vowel is typically more open than the Standard Dutch counterpart, more like . Affected speakers of Northern Standard Dutch may also use this vowel.
* are close front , close to cardinal .
* The majority of sources consider to be close-mid central ,, cited in . yet Beverley Collins and Inger Mees consider it to be close-mid front . The study conducted by Vincent van Heuven and Roos Genet has shown that native speakers consider the canonical IPA value of the symbol to be the most similar one to the Dutch sound, much more than the canonical values of and (the sound represented by was not a part of the study). In regional Standard Dutch may be raised to near-close , for example in Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague. In Antwerp, the vowel may be as high as and the two vowels may differ in nothing but length. A more open vowel of the -type is found in southern accents (e.g. in Bruges) and in affected Northern Standard Dutch.
* have been variously described as close front , near-close front and, in Northern Standard Dutch, near-close central .
* are close back in Northern Standard Dutch and close near-back in Belgian Standard Dutch and some varieties of regional Standard Dutch spoken in Antwerp and Flemish Brabant.

Word-final are raised and end in a voiceless vowel: . The voiceless vowel in the first sequence may sound almost like a palatal fricative , e.g. ('three'), , ('till ').

are frequently longer in Belgian Standard Dutch and most Belgian accents than in Northern Standard Dutch in which the length of those vowels is identical to that of lax vowels.

Regardless of the exact accent, are always lengthened to before in the same word. In Northern Standard Dutch and in the Randstad, they are laxed to and often have a schwa-like off-glide (). This means that before , are less strongly differentiated from in Northern Standard Dutch and in the Randstad than is usually the case in other regional varieties of Standard Dutch and in Belgian Standard Dutch. There is one exception to the lengthening rule: when is followed by a consonant different than and , remain short. Examples of that are words such as ''wierp'' , ''Duisburg'' (alternatively: , with a lax vowel) and ''stierf'' . The rule is also suppressed syllable-finally in certain compounds: compare ''roux-room'' with ''roerroom'' and ''Ruhr-Ohm'' .

Mid vowels

* are open-mid front . According to Jo Verhoeven, the Belgian Standard Dutch variants are somewhat raised. Before and the velarised or pharyngealised allophone of , is typically lowered to . In some regional Standard Dutch (e.g. in Dordrecht, Ghent, Bruges and more generally in Zeeland, North Brabant and Limburg), the lowering is generalised to most or even all contexts. Conversely, some regional Standard Dutch varieties (such as much Randstad Dutch, especially the Amsterdam dialect, as well as the Antwerp accent) realise the main allophone of as higher and more central than open-mid front ().
* is open-mid front .
* has two allophones, with the main one being mid central unrounded . The allophone used in word-final positions resembles the main allophone of as it is closer, more front and more rounded ().
* is open-mid back rounded . Collins and Mees (2003) describe it as "very tense", with pharyngealisation and strong lip-rounding. There is considerable regional and individual variation in the height of , with allophones being as close as in certain words. The closed allophones are especially common in the Randstad. is near in terms of height and backness.

are typically somewhat lengthened and centralised before in Northern Standard Dutch and in the Randstad, usually with a slight schwa-like offglide: . In addition, in this position is somewhat less rounded () than the main allophone of , e.g. ''schor'' ('hoarse'), ''ster'' ('star')

The free vowels are realised as monophthongs in Belgian Standard Dutch (Jo Verhoeven describes the Belgian Standard Dutch realisation of as mid-central ) and in many regional accents. In Northern Standard Dutch, narrow closing diphthongs are used. The starting point of is centralised back (), and the starting point of has been described as front by Collins and Mees and as centralised front by Gussenhoven. The monophthongal counterparts of are peripheral; the former is almost as front as cardinal , whereas the latter is almost as back as cardinal . Many speakers of Randstad Dutch and younger speakers of Northern Standard Dutch realise as rather wide diphthongs of the type, which may be mistaken for the phonemic diphthongs by speakers of other accents. The use of for goes hand in hand with the lowering the first elements of to , a phenomenon called '' Polder Dutch''. Therefore, the phonemic contrast between and is still strongly maintained, but its phonetic realisation is very different from what can be typically heard in traditional Northern Standard Dutch. In Rotterdam and The Hague, the starting point of can be fronted to , instead of being lowered to .

In Northern Standard Dutch and in the Randstad, lose their closing glides and are raised and slightly centralised to (often with a schwa-like off-glide ) before in the same word. The first two allophones strongly resemble the lax monophthongs . Dutch children frequently misspell the word ''weer'' ('again') as ''wir''. Those sounds may also occur in regional varieties of Standard Dutch and in Belgian Standard Dutch, but they are more typically the same as the main allophones of (that is, ). An exception to the centralising rule are syllable-final in compounds such as ''zeereis'' ('sea voyage'), ''milieuramp'' ('environmental disaster') and ''bureauredactrice'' ('desk editor (f.)').

In Northern Standard Dutch, are mid-centralised before the pharyngealised allophone of .

Several non-standard dialects have retained the distinction between the so-called "sharp-long" and "soft-long" ''e'' and ''o'', which dates back to early Middle Dutch. The sharp-long varieties originate from the Old Dutch long ''ē'' and ''ō'' (Proto-Germanic ''ai'' and ''au''), and the soft-long varieties arose from short ''i''/''e'' and ''u''/''o'' that were lengthened in open syllables in early Middle Dutch. The distinction is not considered to be a part of Standard Dutch and is not recognised in educational materials, but it still occurs in many local varieties, such as Antwerpian, Limburgish, West Flemish and Zeelandic. In those varieties, the sharp-long vowels are often opening diphthongs such as , and the soft-long vowels are either plain monophthongs or slightly closing .

Open vowels

In Northern Standard Dutch and some other accents, are realised and so the former is a back vowel , and the latter is central or front . In Belgian Standard Dutch is also central or front, but may be central , instead of back , and so may have the same backness as .

Other accents may have different realisations:
* Many accents (Amsterdam, Utrecht, Antwerp) realise the pair with 'inverted' backness and so is central (or, in the case of Utrecht, even front ), and is closer to cardinal .
* Outside the Randstad, fronting of to central is very common. On the other hand, in Rotterdam and Leiden, the short sounds even ''darker'' than the Standard Northern realisation by being realised as a fully back and raised open vowel, unrounded or rounded .
* In Groningen, tends to be particularly front and similar to the quality of the cardinal vowel , but in The Hague and the affected Standard Northern accent, may be raised and fronted to , particularly before .

Before , is typically a slight centering diphthong with a centralised first element () in Northern Standard Dutch and in the Randstad, e.g. ''nar'' ('fool').

Diphthongs

Dutch also has several diphthongs, but only three of them are unquestionably phonemic. All three of them end in a non-syllabic close vowel (henceforth written for simplicity), but they may begin with a variety of other vowels.

* has been variously transcribed with , , and .
* The starting points of tend to be closer () in Belgian Standard Dutch than in Northern Standard Dutch (). In addition, the Belgian Standard Dutch realisation of tends to be fully rounded, unlike the typical Northern Standard Dutch realisation. However, Jo Verhoeven reports rather open starting points of the Belgian Standard Dutch variants of () and so the main difference between Belgian and Northern Standard Dutch in this respect may be only in the rounding of the first element of , but the fully rounded variant of is also used by some Netherlandic speakers, particularly of the older generation. It is also used in most of Belgium, in line with the Belgian Standard Dutch realisation.
* In conservative Northern Standard Dutch, the starting points of are open-mid and rounded in the case of the last two vowels: .
* The backness of the starting point of the Belgian Standard Dutch realisation of has been variously described as front and centralised front .
* In ''Polder Dutch'', which is spoken in some areas of the Netherlands (especially the Randstad and its surroundings), the starting points of are further lowered to . That is typically accompanied by the lowering of the starting points of to . Such realisations have existed in Hollandic dialects since the 16th century and are now are becoming standard in the Netherlands. They are an example of a chain shift that is similar to the Great Vowel Shift in English. According to Jan Stroop, the fully lowered variant of is the same as the phonetic diphthong , making ''bij'' 'at' and ''baai'' 'bay' perfect homophones.
* The rounding of the starting point of the Northern Standard Dutch realisation of has been variously described as slight and non-existent . The unrounded variant has also been reported to occur in many other accents such as in Leiden and Rotterdam and in some Belgian speakers.
* Phonetically, the endpoints of the native diphthongs are lower and more central than cardinal and more like or even (however, Jo Verhoven reports a rather close () endpoints of the Belgian Standard Dutch variant of and so that might be somewhat variable). In Belgian Standard Dutch, the endpoints are shorter than in Northern Standard Dutch, but in both varieties, the glide is an essential part of the articulation. Furthermore, Northern Standard Dutch has no appreciable difference between the endpoints of and the phonetic diphthongs , with both sets ending in vowels near .
* In some regional varieties of Standard Dutch (Southern, regional Belgian), the endpoints of are even lower than in Standard Dutch: . In the traditional dialect of The Hague, they are pure monophthongs . Broad Amsterdam may also monophthongise but to . It typically does not merge with , which has a rather back () realisation in Amsterdam.

While occur only in Northern Standard Dutch and regional Netherlands Standard Dutch, all varieties of Standard Dutch have phonetic diphthongs . Phonemically, they are considered to be sequences of by Geert Booij and as monosyllabic sequences by Beverley Collins and Inger Mees (they do not comment on and ). This article adopts the former analysis.

In Northern Standard Dutch, the second elements of may be labiodental , which is especially common in intervocalic positions.

In Northern Standard Dutch and regional Netherlands Standard Dutch, the close-mid elements of may be subject to the same kind of diphthongisation as and so they may be actually triphthongs with two closing elements ( can instead be , a closing diphthong followed by ). In Rotterdam, can be phonetically , with a central starting point.

is realised with more prominence on the first element, according to Booij, and with equal prominence on both elements, according to Collins and Mees. Other diphthongs have more prominence on the first element.

The endpoints of these diphthongs tend to be slightly more central () than cardinal . They tend to be higher than the endpoints of the phonemic diphthongs .

Samplewords for vowels and diphthongs

Stress

Most native Germanic words, which are the bulk of the core vocabulary, are stressed on the root syllable, which is usually the first syllable of the word. Germanic words may also be stressed on the second or a later syllable if certain unstressed prefixes are added, particularly for verbs. Non-root stress is common in loanwords, which are generally borrowed with the stress placement unchanged. Secondary stress may also be present in polysyllabic words. Certain prefixes and suffixes receive secondary stress: , . The stressed syllable of a word receives secondary stress within a compound word: , .

The vast majority of compound nouns are stressed on the first element: , . The word generally takes secondary stress in compounds: , . Some compounds formed from two words are stressed on the second element: , . In some cases, the secondary stress in a compound shifts to preserve a trochaic pattern: , but . Compounds formed from two compound words tend to follow the same rules, but for compound words formed of more than two words, the stress is irregular.

While stress is phonemic, minimal pairs are rare, and marking the stress in written Dutch is always optional though it is sometimes recommended to distinguish homographs that differ only in stress. It is common practice to distinguish ''een'' (indefinite article) from ''één'' (the cardinal number one), but the distinction is not so much about stress as it is about the pronunciation of the vowel ( versus ) since the former is always unstressed, the latter may or may not be stressed. Stress also distinguishes some verbs since stress placement on prefixes also carries a grammatical distinction, such as in '' vóórkomen'' ('to occur') and '' voorkómen'' ('to prevent'). In ''vóórkomen'' and other verbs with a stressed prefix, the prefix is separable and separates as ''kom voor'' in the first-person singular present, with the past participle ''vóórgekomen''. On the other hand, verbs with an unstressed prefix are not separable: ''voorkómen'' becomes ''voorkóm'' in the first-person singular present and ''voorkómen'' in the past participle, without the past participle prefix ''ge-''.

Dutch, like other Germanic languages, has a strong stress accent and uses stress timing because of its relatively complex syllable structure. It has a preference for trochaic rhythm, with relatively stronger and weaker stress alternating between syllables in such a way that syllables with stronger stress are produced at a more or less constant pace. Generally, alternate syllables before and after the primary receive relative stress as far as secondary stress placements allow: Wá.gə.nì.ngən. Relative stress preferably does not fall on and so syllables containing it may disrupt the trochaic rhythm. To restore the pattern, vowels are often syncopated in speech: kín.də.rən > , há.ri.ngən > , vər.gə.líj.king > . In words for which the secondary stress is imposed lexically onto the syllable immediately following the stressed syllable, a short pause is often inserted after the stressed syllable to maintain the rhythm, which ensures that the stressed syllable has more or less an equal length to the trochaic unit after it: bóm..mèl.ding, wéér..lò.zə.

Historically, the Dutch stress accent has reduced most vowels in unstressed syllables to , as in most other Germanic languages. The process is still somewhat productive, and it is common to reduce vowels to in syllables that carry neither primary nor secondary stress, particularly in syllables that are relatively weakly stressed because of the trochaic rhythm. Weakly-stressed long vowels may also be shortened without any significant reduction in vowel quality. For example, ''politie'' (phonemically ) may be pronounced , or even .

Phonotactics

The syllable structure of Dutch is (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C). Like for English, many words, such as ''straat'' (street), begin with three consonants. Words that end in four consonants are mostly superlative adjectives.

Onset

Notes on individual consonants:
* is the only phoneme that can occur at the beginning of a sequence of three consonants: , , , , , . It is the only consonant that can occur before : . It cannot occur immediately before , though it does ''phonetically'' for speakers who drop in the sequence (very common in ).
* The only possible consonant cluster with is : .
* is infrequent as the first element, mostly occurring in roots coming from Greek: , , . It is very common in the sequence .
* , and do not occur in clusters.
* cannot appear in onsets except as an ambisyllabic word-internal consonant.

A sequence of CCC always begins with . The CC-structure may be realised by almost all stops and non-sibilant, non-glottal fricatives followed by the sonorants or , but and are impossible: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , .
Voiced obstruents except for may not appear in other clusters. Voiceless obstruents can occur in stop-fricative and fricative-stop clusters. Sequences of a voiceless obstruent or and are also possible since for , only occurs:
* Stop-fricative clusters primarily occur in loanwords: , , , .
** , , and the rare are typical of words derived from Greek.
* An obstruent followed by appears in many native words: , , more rarely (also in words derived from Greek: ''gnostiek''), .
** ''pneumatisch'' appears only in words derived from Greek.

Nasals rarely begin clusters.

Coda

* Voiced consonants appear only in loanwords: ''jazz''.
* appears alone and is preceded by or and/or followed by , , .
* does not occur before labials and dorsals, does not occur before labials and does not occur before dorsals. does not follow long vowels or diphthongs.
* cannot occur after diphthongs.
* , and do not occur.

Historic sound changes

Dutch, with the exception of the Limburg dialects, did not participate in the second Germanic consonant shift:
* > : German ''machen'' vs. Dutch , English ''make''
* > : German ''Schaf'' vs. Dutch , English ''sheep''
* > : German ''Wasser'' vs. Dutch , English ''water''

Dutch has also preserved the fricative variety of Proto-Germanic * as (devoiced to in the north) unlike some dialects of German, which have generalised the stop , and English, which has lost the fricative variety through regular sound changes.

* > : German ''logen'' vs. Dutch vs. English ''lie(d)''

However, Dutch has undergone a fortition of to like High (and Low) German:

* > : German ''das'', Dutch vs. English ''that''

Dutch also underwent a few changes of its own:
* Words with -old, -olt or -ald and -alt have lost the in favor of a diphthong mostly in Middle Dutch, as a result of l-vocalisation. Compare English ''old'', German ''alt'', Dutch .
* changed to , spelled , but it was later reverted in many words by analogy with other forms. Compare English ''loft'', German ''Luft'', Dutch ''lucht'' .
* Proto-Germanic turned into through palatalisation, which in turn became the diphthong , spelled . Long also diphthongised to , spelled .

Sample

The sample text is a reading of the first sentence of '' The North Wind and the Sun''.

Northern Standard Dutch

The phonetic transcription illustrates a Western Netherlandic, educated, middle-generation speech and a careful colloquial style.

Orthographic version

De noordenwind en de zon hadden een discussie over de vraag wie van hun tweeën de sterkste was, toen er juist iemand voorbijkwam die een dikke, warme jas aanhad.

Phonemic transcription

Phonetic transcription

Source: . Close-mid vowels are transcribed as diphthongs according to the same page.

Belgian Standard Dutch

The phonetic transcription illustrates the speech of a highly educated 45-year-old male who speaks Belgian Dutch with a very slight regional Limburg accent.

Orthographic version

De noordenwind en de zon waren ruzie aan het maken over wie het sterkste was toen er een reiziger voorbij kwam met een warme jas aan.

Phonemic transcription

Phonetic transcription

See also

* Dutch orthography
* Hard and soft G in Dutch
* Afrikaans phonology

References

Bibliography

*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* A summary of the presentation can be foun
here
.
*
*

Further reading

*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*

External links

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dutch Phonology

Phonology
Netherlandic studies