Drug precursors, also referred to as precursor chemicals or simply precursors, are substances used to manufacture

illicit drugs The prohibition of drugs through sumptuary legislation or religious law is a common means of attempting to prevent the recreational use of certain intoxicating substances. An area has a prohibition of drugs when its government uses the for ...

. Most precursors also have legitimate commercial uses and are legally used in a wide variety of industrial processes and consumer products, such as medicines, flavourings, and fragrances. International regulators of precursor chemicals consider it necessary to recognise and protect the legal trade of these chemicals, while at the same time preventing their diversion from such trade for use in the illegal manufacture of narcotic drugs and psychoactive substances. For example, phenylacetic acid is used legally in the production of penicillin, flavourings, perfume, and cleaning solutions, but it can also be used in the illegal manufacture of amphetamines and methamphetamine. The international framework for precursor control is set out under Articles 12 and 13 of the 1988 United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, requiring UN member states to establish and enforce regulatory systems that monitor the trade in their country, as well as movement of precursor chemicals into and out of their country (e.g. transshipment). Monitoring is carried out through measures including the licensing and registration of operators, procedures and requirements governing movement of chemicals, as well as documentation, record keeping and labelling requirements. The International Narcotics Control Board has also established tools including the Pre-Export Notification Online (PEN-Online) and Precursors Incident Communication (PICS) systems, in addition to annual information reporting through 'Form D' and the International Special Surveillance List (ISSL) for non-controlled and designer chemicals which can be used as precursors themselves for certain illicit drugs or pre-precursors, to support UN Member States in their domestic regulatory efforts and cross-border coordination. There is also harmonised legislation across Europe which puts a control system in place with the aim to achieve a balance between precursor diversion prevention without inhibiting legal trade.

The role of East and Southeast Asia

The

East Asia East Asia is a geocultural region of Asia. It includes China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan, plus two special administrative regions of China, Hong Kong and Macau. The economies of Economy of China, China, Economy of Ja ...

and

Southeast Asia Southeast Asia is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, southeastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of China, east of the Indian subcontinent, and northwest of the Mainland Au ...

regions are referred to by many regulatory and law enforcement experts as the largest source for precursor chemicals used for illicit drug production, including by the INCB and UN Office on Drugs and Crime, in-part because a wide variety of chemicals are frequently diverted and trafficked within the region and to other parts of the world including to North America, Central and South America, Oceania (Australia and New Zealand), Europe, and Africa. Southeast and East Asia experienced a methamphetamine epidemic beginning in the late 1990s, which peaked in 2000–2001. The region later became a global hub for methamphetamine production and trafficking. Opium production has long been a major concern in the Golden Triangle region, especially

Myanmar Myanmar, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar; and also referred to as Burma (the official English name until 1989), is a country in northwest Southeast Asia. It is the largest country by area in Mainland Southeast Asia and has ...

, but since the early 2000s production has diversified towards synthetic drug production. Countries in Southeast Asia, and particularly the Mekong region, have collectively witnessed sustained increases in seizures of methamphetamine over the last decade, totaling over 169 tons and a record of over 1.1 billion

methamphetamine Methamphetamine (contracted from ) is a potent central nervous system (CNS) stimulant that is mainly used as a recreational drug use, recreational or Performance-enhancing substance, performance-enhancing drug and less commonly as a secon ...

tablets in 2023, more than any other part of the world, with Myanmar representing one of the world's largest sources of the drug. In April and May 2020, Myanmar authorities reported Asia's largest ever drug operation in

Shan State Shan State (, ; , ) is a administrative divisions of Myanmar, state of Myanmar. Shan State borders China (Yunnan) to the north, Laos (Louang Namtha Province, Louang Namtha and Bokeo Provinces) to the east, and Thailand (Chiang Rai Province, Chia ...

, seizing 193 million methamphetamine tablets, hundreds of kilogrammes of crystal methamphetamine as well as some heroin, and over 162,000 litres and 35.5 tons of drug precursors as well as sophisticated production equipment and several staging and storage facilities. The growth of the industry has been highlighted as potentially fueling conflict in the region. The Golden Triangle Special Economic Zone (GTSEZ) has emerged as a key hub for the trade. The GTSEZ was founded and is chaired by sanctioned Chinese national Zhao Wei. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) has raised concerns several times about Laos being used by organized crime to traffic drugs, precursor chemicals and other illicit commodities, and that unregulated border casinos in the Mekong region including Kings Romans are being used to launder money. In early October 2020, a $50 million investment to build a port in the Laotian town of Ban Mom, directly north of the Golden Triangle Special Economic Zone, was made by Osiano Trading Sole Co., a partner or front company of Zhao Wei and his organization.

Trafficking

Organized crime groups operating in East and Southeast Asia have demonstrated significant sophistication in recent years, as well as their comparative advantage when it comes to sourcing precursors and specialized non-controlled precursor and pre-precursor chemicals for the illicit manufacture of drugs. Aside from regulatory controls that are easily bypassed, Southeast Asia, and in particular the Mekong sub-region, is situated next to two of the world's leading chemical-producing countries, China and India. However, while the chemical and pharmaceutical industries of China, and to a lesser extent India, are known to be the primary sources of the chemicals used for illicit drug production in Southeast Asia, these industries have also grown rapidly within the region itself in recent years and play an increasingly important role in the illicit drug trade. For example, between 2010 and 2018, outputs of chemicals and their products in Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam, increased in value by nearly 40 per cent from US$132 billion to US$181 billion. Regional experts have highlighted concerns regarding the use of border infrastructure to facilitate trafficking of precursors and supporting illicit industries. For example, the Ban Mom port mentioned above is located in an area confirmed to be a location used for trafficking drugs and precursor chemicals into and out of drug production areas and special regions. Laos is the key route into the Golden Triangle for precursors from China, and for the export of finished products down the Mekong, shipments of which have been seized across the region and beyond. The UNODC has also noted an increase in shipments from Myanmar via the Andaman Sea. In 2024, UNODC reported that the year prior seizures of methamphetamine reached the highest amount ever recorded for the region. The synthetic drug market has grown rapidly due in large part to organized crime groups leveraging creative chemistry and gaps in precursor regulatory frameworks to supply both controlled and non-controlled chemicals and designer precursors to expand production. Examples of such precursors and drugs made with them are listed below.

Precursors

* 2C-H ** 2C-''x'' * N-Acetylanthranilic acid ** methaqualone * Anthranilic acid ** methaqualone *

Benzaldehyde Benzaldehyde (C6H5CHO) is an organic compound consisting of a benzene ring with a formyl substituent. It is among the simplest aromatic aldehydes and one of the most industrially useful. It is a colorless liquid with a characteristic almond-li ...

amphetamine Amphetamine (contracted from Alpha and beta carbon, alpha-methylphenethylamine, methylphenethylamine) is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant that is used in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), narcolepsy, an ...

** phenylacetone * Benzyl cyanide ** phenylacetone * CBD ** THC (see conversion of CBD to THC) *

Ephedrine Ephedrine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant and sympathomimetic agent that is often used to prevent hypotension, low blood pressure during anesthesia. It has also been used for asthma, narcolepsy, and obesity but is not the preferred ...

and pseudoephedrine **

** methcathinone * Ergocristine, ergine, ergonovine, and ergotamine ** LSD * Ethylamine ** ethylamphetamine * GBL ** GHB * Safrole, isosafrole, and 3,4-methylenedioxyphenylpropan-2-one ** MDMA, MDEA, MDA * Methylamine **

* N-Methylephedrine and N-methylpseudoephedrine ** dimethylamphetamine * N-Phenethyl-4-piperidone (NPP) **

fentanyl Fentanyl is a highly potent synthetic piperidine opioid primarily used as an analgesic (pain medication). It is 30 to 50 times more Potency (pharmacology), potent than heroin and 50 to 100 times more potent than morphine. Its primary Medici ...

and analogues *

Nitroethane Nitroethane is an organic compound having the chemical formula C2H5NO2. Similar in many regards to nitromethane, nitroethane is an oily liquid at standard temperature and pressure. Pure nitroethane is colorless and has a fruity odor. Preparati ...

** MDA ** phenylacetone * Norpseudoephedrine and phenylpropanolamine **

** 4-methylaminorex * Phenylacetic acid ** phenylacetone * Piperidine ** phencyclidine (PCP) * Piperonal (heliotropin) ** MDMA, MDEA, MDA * Propionic anhydride **

and analogues *

Acetic anhydride Acetic anhydride, or ethanoic anhydride, is the chemical compound with the chemical formula, formula . Commonly abbreviated , it is one the simplest organic acid anhydride, anhydrides of a carboxylic acid and is widely used in the production of c ...

heroin Heroin, also known as diacetylmorphine and diamorphine among other names, is a morphinan opioid substance synthesized from the Opium, dried latex of the Papaver somniferum, opium poppy; it is mainly used as a recreational drug for its eupho ...

** methaqualone ** phenylacetone * Benzyl chloride **

* 1-(2-Chloro-N-methylbenzimidoyl)cyclopentanol **

ketamine Ketamine is a cyclohexanone-derived general anesthetic and NMDA receptor antagonist with analgesic and hallucinogenic properties, used medically for anesthesia, depression, and pain management. Ketamine exists as its S- (esketamine) a ...

Reagents

* Hydriodic acid **

* Hypophosphorous acid **

Iodine Iodine is a chemical element; it has symbol I and atomic number 53. The heaviest of the stable halogens, it exists at standard conditions as a semi-lustrous, non-metallic solid that melts to form a deep violet liquid at , and boils to a vi ...

Red phosphorus Red phosphorus is an Allotropes of phosphorus, allotrope of phosphorus. It is an amorphous polymeric red solid that is stable in air. It can be easily converted from white phosphorus under light or heating. It finds applications as matches and fir ...

and white phosphorus **

* Potassium permanganate **

cocaine Cocaine is a tropane alkaloid and central nervous system stimulant, derived primarily from the leaves of two South American coca plants, ''Erythroxylum coca'' and ''Erythroxylum novogranatense, E. novogranatense'', which are cultivated a ...

** methcathinone *

Sodium permanganate Sodium permanganate is the inorganic compound with the formula sodium, NaPermanganate, MnO4. It is closely related to the more commonly encountered potassium permanganate, but it is generally less desirable, because it is more expensive to produce ...

Hydrochloric acid Hydrochloric acid, also known as muriatic acid or spirits of salt, is an aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride (HCl). It is a colorless solution with a distinctive pungency, pungent smell. It is classified as a acid strength, strong acid. It is ...

(

hydrogen chloride The Chemical compound, compound hydrogen chloride has the chemical formula and as such is a hydrogen halide. At room temperature, it is a colorless gas, which forms white fumes of hydrochloric acid upon contact with atmospheric water vapor. Hyd ...

) ** amphetamine ** cocaine ** N,N-dimethylamphetamine ** ethylamphetamine ** fentanyl and analogues ** heroin ** LSD ** MDA ** MDE ** MDMA ** methamphetamine ** methaqualone ** methcathinone ** phencyclidine (PCP) *

Sulfuric acid Sulfuric acid (American spelling and the preferred IUPAC name) or sulphuric acid (English in the Commonwealth of Nations, Commonwealth spelling), known in antiquity as oil of vitriol, is a mineral acid composed of the elements sulfur, oxygen, ...

** amphetamine ** cocaine ** MDA ** MDE ** MDMA ** methamphetamine ** methaqualone ** phenylacetone

Solvents

Acetone Acetone (2-propanone or dimethyl ketone) is an organic compound with the chemical formula, formula . It is the simplest and smallest ketone (). It is a colorless, highly Volatile organic compound, volatile, and flammable liquid with a charact ...

** heroin ** LSD ** MDA ** MDE ** MDMA ** methamphetamine *

Diethyl ether Diethyl ether, or simply ether, is an organic compound with the chemical formula , sometimes abbreviated as . It is a colourless, highly Volatility (chemistry), volatile, sweet-smelling ("ethereal odour"), extremely flammable liquid. It belongs ...

** amphetamine ** cocaine ** fentanyl and analogues ** heroin ** LSD ** MDA ** MDE ** MDMA ** methamphetamine ** methaqualone ** methcathinone ** phencyclidine (PCP) ** phenylacetone * Methylethylketone ( butanone) and methyl isobutyl ketone **

** MDA ** MDEA **

Toluene Toluene (), also known as toluol (), is a substituted aromatic hydrocarbon with the chemical formula , often abbreviated as , where Ph stands for the phenyl group. It is a colorless, water Water is an inorganic compound with the c ...

and analogues ** methaqualone ** phencyclidine (PCP) ** phenylacetone * Denatured

Ethanol Ethanol (also called ethyl alcohol, grain alcohol, drinking alcohol, or simply alcohol) is an organic compound with the chemical formula . It is an Alcohol (chemistry), alcohol, with its formula also written as , or EtOH, where Et is the ps ...

/ Isopropynol **

Hexane Hexane () or ''n''-hexane is an organic compound, a straight-chain alkane with six carbon atoms and the molecular formula C6H14. Hexane is a colorless liquid, odorless when pure, and with a boiling point of approximately . It is widely used as ...

The role of East and Southeast Asia

Trafficking

Precursors

Reagents

Solvents

References

See also