The Drosophilidae are a diverse,

cosmopolitan Cosmopolitan may refer to: Internationalism * World citizen, one who eschews traditional geopolitical divisions derived from national citizenship * Cosmopolitanism, the idea that all of humanity belongs to a single moral community * Cosmopolitan ...

family Family (from ) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). It forms the basis for social order. Ideally, families offer predictabili ...

flies Flies are insects of the Order (biology), order Diptera, the name being derived from the Ancient Greek, Greek δι- ''di-'' "two", and πτερόν ''pteron'' "wing". Insects of this order use only a single pair of wings to fly, the hindwin ...

, which includes species called fruit flies, although they are more accurately referred to as vinegar or pomace flies. Another distantly related family of flies,

Tephritidae The Tephritidae are one of two fly families referred to as fruit flies, the other family being the Drosophilidae. The family Tephritidae does not include the biological model organisms of the genus '' Drosophila'' (in the family Drosophilidae ...

, are true fruit flies because they are frugivorous, and include apple maggot flies and many pests. The best known species of the Drosophilidae is ''

Drosophila melanogaster ''Drosophila melanogaster'' is a species of fly (an insect of the Order (biology), order Diptera) in the family Drosophilidae. The species is often referred to as the fruit fly or lesser fruit fly, or less commonly the "vinegar fly", "pomace fly" ...

'', within the

genus Genus (; : genera ) is a taxonomic rank above species and below family (taxonomy), family as used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In bino ...

Drosophila ''Drosophila'' (), from Ancient Greek δρόσος (''drósos''), meaning "dew", and φίλος (''phílos''), meaning "loving", is a genus of fly, belonging to the family Drosophilidae, whose members are often called "small fruit flies" or p ...

'', also called the "fruit fly." ''Drosophila melanogaster'' is used extensively for studies concerning

genetics Genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in organisms.Hartl D, Jones E (2005) It is an important branch in biology because heredity is vital to organisms' evolution. Gregor Mendel, a Moravian Augustinians, Augustinian ...

, development,

physiology Physiology (; ) is the science, scientific study of function (biology), functions and mechanism (biology), mechanisms in a life, living system. As a branches of science, subdiscipline of biology, physiology focuses on how organisms, organ syst ...

ecology Ecology () is the natural science of the relationships among living organisms and their Natural environment, environment. Ecology considers organisms at the individual, population, community (ecology), community, ecosystem, and biosphere lev ...

and

behaviour Behavior (American English) or behaviour (British English) is the range of actions of Individual, individuals, organisms, systems or Artificial intelligence, artificial entities in some environment. These systems can include other systems or or ...

. Many fundamental biological mechanisms were discovered first in ''D. melanogaster.'' The fruit fly is mostly composed of post-mitotic cells, has a very short lifespan, and shows gradual aging. As in other species, temperature influences the life history of the animal. Several genes have been identified that can be manipulated to extend the lifespan of these insects. Additionally, '' Drosophila subobscura,'' also within the genus ''Drosophila'', has been reputed as a model organism for evolutionary-biological studies, along with '' D. sechellia'' for the evolution of host specialization on the toxic noni fruit and ''Scaptomyza flava'' for the evolution of

herbivory A herbivore is an animal anatomically and physiologically evolved to feed on plants, especially upon vascular tissues such as foliage, fruits or seeds, as the main component of its diet. These more broadly also encompass animals that eat n ...

and specialist on toxic mustard leaves.

Economic significance

Generally, drosophilids are considered to be nuisance flies rather than pests, since most species breed in rotting material. '' Zaprionus indianus'' is unusual among Drosophilidae species in being a serious, primary pest of at least one commercial fruit, figs in Brazil. Another species, '' Drosophila suzukii'', infests thin-skinned fruit such as

raspberries The raspberry is the edible fruit of several plant species in the genus ''Rubus'' of the Rosaceae, rose family, most of which are in the subgenus ''Rubus#Modern classification, Idaeobatus''. The name also applies to these plants themselves. Ras ...

and

cherries A cherry is the fruit of many plants of the genus ''Prunus'', and is a fleshy drupe (stone fruit). Commercial cherries are obtained from cultivars of several species, such as the sweet ''Prunus avium'' and the sour ''Prunus cerasus''. The name ...

and can be a serious agricultural pest. The leaf mining '' Scaptomyza flava'', which is nested in the genus ''Drosophila''

phylogenetically In biology, phylogenetics () is the study of the evolutionary history of life using observable characteristics of organisms (or genes), which is known as phylogenetic inference. It infers the relationship among organisms based on empirical data ...

, is an obligate

leaf miner A leaf miner is any one of numerous species of insects in which the larval stage lives in, and eats, the leaf tissue of plants. The vast majority of leaf-mining insects are moths (Lepidoptera), sawflies (Symphyta, a paraphyletic group which ...

of mustard plants, including the model plant ''

Arabidopsis thaliana ''Arabidopsis thaliana'', the thale cress, mouse-ear cress or arabidopsis, is a small plant from the mustard family (Brassicaceae), native to Eurasia and Africa. Commonly found along the shoulders of roads and in disturbed land, it is generally ...

'' and is a major pest of salad brassicas in New Zealand and an emerging pest of canola in the UK. ''Drosophila repleta'' larvae inhabit drains and spread bacteria. Fruit flies in general are considered as a common vector in propagating

acetic acid bacteria Acetic acid bacteria (AAB) are a group of Gram-negative bacteria which Oxidation, oxidize sugars or ethanol and produce acetic acid during Aerobic fermentation, fermentation. The acetic acid bacteria consist of 10 genus, genera in the family Acet ...

in nature. This often ruins the alcohol fermentation process and can ruin beer or wine by turning it into

vinegar Vinegar () is an aqueous solution of diluted acetic acid and trace compounds that may include flavorings. Vinegar typically contains from 5% to 18% acetic acid by volume. Usually, the acetic acid is produced by a double fermentation, converting ...

. There are sinking traps available on the market for this nuisance, but one quick way to strongly limit the extent of it is to vacuum clean the flies both at rest and in their slow flight.

Identification

The diagnostic characteristics for Drosophilidae include the presence of an incomplete subcostal vein, two breaks in the costal vein, a small anal cell in the

wing A wing is a type of fin that produces both Lift (force), lift and drag while moving through air. Wings are defined by two shape characteristics, an airfoil section and a planform (aeronautics), planform. Wing efficiency is expressed as lift-to-d ...

, convergent postocellar bristles; and usually three frontal bristles on each side of the head, one directed forward and the other two directed rearward. More extensive identification characteristics can be found in "''Drosophila'': A Guide to Species Identification and Use" by Therese A. Markow and Patrick O'Grady, (Academic Press, 2005) or "''Drosophila'': A Laboratory Handbook" by M. Ashburner, K. Golic, S. Hawley, (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 2005).

Mutualism

There is evidence to support that pathogens living within certain flies are beneficial to the behavior and survival of the host. One such example of this is in the fly ''Scaptomyza flava,'' which carries the pathogen ''

Pseudomonas syringae ''Pseudomonas syringae'' is a rod-shaped, Gram-negative bacterium with polar flagella. As a plant pathology, plant pathogen, it can infect a wide range of species, and exists as over 50 different pathovars, all of which are available to research ...

'' in exchange for the pathogen damaging the anti-herbivore defenses of plants in the family

Brassicaceae Brassicaceae () or (the older but equally valid) Cruciferae () is a medium-sized and economically important Family (biology), family of flowering plants commonly known as the mustards, the crucifers, or the cabbage family. Most are herbaceous pla ...

, which are the main food source for the fly.

Phylogeny

The family contains more than 4,000 species classified under 75 genera. Recently, a comprehensive phylogenetic classification of the genera based on both molecular and morphological characters has been published. * Subfamily Drosophilinae Rondani, 1856: ** Tribe Colocasiomyini Okada, 1989: *** Genus '' Baeodrosophila'' Wheeler & Takada, 1964 *** Genus '' Balara'' Bock, 1982 *** Genus '' Chymomyza'' Czerny, 1903 *** Genus '' Colocasiomyia'' de Meijere, 1914 *** Genus '' Lissocephala'' Malloch, 1929 *** Genus '' Neotanygastrella'' Duda, 1925 *** Genus '' Phorticella'' Duda, 1924 *** Genus '' Scaptodrosophila'' Duda, 1923 *** Genus '' Protochymomyza'' Grimaldi, 1987 ** Tribe Drosophilini Okada, 1989: *** Genus '' Arengomyia'' Yafuso & Toda, 2008 *** Genus '' Bialba'' Bock, 1989 *** Genus '' Calodrosophila'' Wheeler & Takada, 1964 *** Genus '' Celidosoma'' Hardy, 1965 *** Genus '' Collessia'' Bock, 1982 *** Genus '' Dettopsomyia'' Lamb, 1914 *** Genus '' Dichaetophora'' Duda, 1940 *** Genus '' Dicladochaeta'' Malloch, 1932 *** Genus ''

'' Fallén, 1823 *** Genus '' Hirtodrosophila'' Duda, 1923 *** Genus '' Hypselothyrea'' Okada, 1956 *** Genus '' Idiomyia'' Grimshaw, 1901 (Hawaiian Drosophila) *** Genus '' Jeannelopsis'' Séguy, 1938 *** Genus '' Laccodrosophila'' Duda, 1927 *** Genus '' Liodrosophila'' Duda, 1922 *** Genus '' Lordiphosa'' Basden, 1961 *** Genus '' Microdrosophila'' Malloch, 1921 *** Genus '' Miomyia'' Grimaldi, 1987 *** Genus '' Mulgravea'' Bock, 1982 *** Genus '' Mycodrosophila'' Oldenberg, 1914 *** Genus '' Palmomyia'' Grimaldi, 2003 *** Genus '' Paraliodrosophila'' Duda, 1925 *** Genus '' Paramycodrosophila'' Duda, 1924 *** Genus '' Poliocephala'' Bock, 1989 *** Genus '' Samoaia'' Malloch, 1934 *** Genus '' Scaptomyza'' Hardy, 1849 *** Genus '' Sphaerogastrella'' Duda, 1922 *** Genus '' Styloptera'' Duda, 1924 *** Genus '' Tambourella'' Wheeler, 1957 *** Genus '' Zaprionus'' Coquillett, 1902 *** Genus '' Zaropunis'' Tsacas, 1990 *** Genus '' Zapriothrica'' Wheeler, 1956 *** Genus '' Zygothrica'' Wiedemann, 1830 ** Incertae sedis: *** Genus '' Marquesia'' Malloch, 1932 * Subfamily Steganinae Hendel, 1917: ** Tribe Gitonini Grimaldi, 1990: *** Genus '' Allopygaea'' Tsacas, 2000 *** Genus '' Acletoxenus'' Frauenfeld, 1868 *** Genus '' Amiota'' Loew, 1862 *** Genus '' Apenthecia'' Tsacas, 1983 *** Genus '' Apsiphortica'' Okada, 1971 *** Genus '' Cacoxenus'' Loew, 1858 *** Genus '' Crincosia'' Bock, 1982 *** Genus '' Electrophortica'' Hennig, 1965 *** Genus '' Erima'' Kertész, 1899 *** Genus '' Gitona'' Meigen, 1830 *** Genus '' Hyalistata'' Wheeler, 1960 *** Genus '' Luzonimyia'' Malloch, 1926 *** Genus '' Mayagueza'' Wheeler, 1960 *** Genus '' Paracacoxenus'' Hardy & Wheeler, 1960 *** Genus '' Paraleucophenga'' Hendel, 1914 *** Genus '' Paraphortica'' Duda, 1934 *** Genus '' Phortica'' Schiner, 1862 *** Genus '' Pseudiastata'' Coquillett, 1901 *** Genus '' Pseudocacoxenus'' Duda, 1925 *** Genus '' Rhinoleucophenga'' Hendel, 1917 *** Genus '' Soederbomia'' Hendel, 1938 *** Genus '' Trachyleucophenga'' Hendel, 1917 ** Tribe Steganini Okada, 1989: *** Genus '' Eostegana'' Hendel, 1913 *** Genus '' Leucophenga'' Mik, 1866 *** Genus '' Pararhinoleucophenga'' Duda, 1924 *** Genus '' Parastegana'' Okada, 1971 *** Genus '' Pseudostegana'' Okada, 1978 *** Genus '' Stegana'' Meigen, 1830 ** Incertae sedis: *** Genus '' Neorhinoleucophenga'' Duda, 1924 *** Genus '' Pyrgometopa'' Kertész, 1901 Image:sa_fruitfly3.jpg , Close-up of fruit fly proboscis Image:sa_fruitfly4.jpg , Front view Image:fruit_fly5.jpg image:Drosophilidae compound eye edit1.jpg , Drosophilidae

compound eye A compound eye is a Eye, visual organ found in arthropods such as insects and crustaceans. It may consist of thousands of ommatidium, ommatidia, which are tiny independent photoreception units that consist of a cornea, lens (anatomy), lens, and p ...

References

External links

Diptera.info photo galleryFamily Drosophilidae at EOL
images {{Authority control Brachycera families Taxa named by Camillo Rondani