Dissolution in politics is when a state, institution, nation, or administrative region dissolves or ceases to exist, usually separating into two or more entities, or being
annexed. This can be carried out through
armed conflict,
legal means,
diplomacy
Diplomacy is the communication by representatives of State (polity), state, International organization, intergovernmental, or Non-governmental organization, non-governmental institutions intended to influence events in the international syste ...
, or a combination of any or all of the three. It is similar to
dissolution in the legal sense.
It is not to be confused with
secession
Secession is the formal withdrawal of a group from a Polity, political entity. The process begins once a group proclaims an act of secession (such as a declaration of independence). A secession attempt might be violent or peaceful, but the goal i ...
, where a state, institution, nation, or administrative region leaves; nor
federalisation where the structure changes but is not dissolved. There have been several dissolutions in history, while others have been proposed or advanced as hypotheticals.
Historical dissolutions
Austria-Hungary
In 1918, the
dissolution of Austria-Hungary was a major geopolitical event that occurred as a result of the growth of internal social contradictions and the separation of different parts of
Austria-Hungary
Austria-Hungary, also referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Dual Monarchy or the Habsburg Monarchy, was a multi-national constitutional monarchy in Central Europe#Before World War I, Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. A military ...
. The reason for the collapse of the state was
World War I
World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
, the 1918 crop failure and the economic crisis.
[Cornwall, Mark, ed. ''The Last Years of Austria-Hungary'' University of Exeter Press, 2002. ]
On October 17, 1918, the
Hungarian Parliament terminated the union with Austria and declared the independence of the country,
Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia ( ; Czech language, Czech and , ''Česko-Slovensko'') was a landlocked country in Central Europe, created in 1918, when it declared its independence from Austria-Hungary. In 1938, after the Munich Agreement, the Sudetenland beca ...
was formed on October 28, followed by the emergence of the
State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs on October 29. On November 3, the
West Ukrainian People's Republic
The West Ukrainian People's Republic (; West Ukrainian People's Republic#Name, see other names) was a short-lived state that controlled most of Eastern Galicia from November 1918 to July 1919. It included major cities of Lviv, Ternopil, Kolom ...
declared independence; on November 6, Poland was re-established in
Krakow. Also during the collapse of the empire, the
Republic of Tarnobrzeg, the
Hutsul Republic, the
Lemko Republic, the
Komancza Republic, the
Republic of Prekmurje, the
Hungarian Soviet Republic, the
Slovak Soviet Republic, the
Banat Republic and the
Italian Regency of Carnaro arose.
The remaining territories inhabited by divided peoples fell into the composition of existing or newly formed states. Legally, the collapse of the empire was formalized in the
Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye with
Austria
Austria, formally the Republic of Austria, is a landlocked country in Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine Federal states of Austria, states, of which the capital Vienna is the List of largest cities in Aust ...
, which also acted as a peace treaty after the First World War, and in the
Treaty of Trianon with
Hungary
Hungary is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning much of the Pannonian Basin, Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Croatia and ...
.
Czechoslovakia
The
dissolution of Czechoslovakia
The dissolution of Czechoslovakia, which took effect on December 31, 1992, was the Self-determination, self-determined Partition (politics), partition of the federal republic of Fifth Czechoslovak Republic, Czechoslovakia into the independent ...
took effect on 1 January 1993 and was the self-determined split of the
federal republic
A federal republic is a federation of Federated state, states with a republican form of government. At its core, the literal meaning of the word republic when used to reference a form of government means a country that is governed by elected re ...
of
Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia ( ; Czech language, Czech and , ''Česko-Slovensko'') was a landlocked country in Central Europe, created in 1918, when it declared its independence from Austria-Hungary. In 1938, after the Munich Agreement, the Sudetenland beca ...
into the independent countries of the
Czech Republic
The Czech Republic, also known as Czechia, and historically known as Bohemia, is a landlocked country in Central Europe. The country is bordered by Austria to the south, Germany to the west, Poland to the northeast, and Slovakia to the south ...
and
Slovakia
Slovakia, officially the Slovak Republic, is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Hungary to the south, Austria to the west, and the Czech Republic to the northwest. Slovakia's m ...
. Both mirrored the
Czech Socialist Republic and the
Slovak Socialist Republic, which had been created in 1969 as the constituent states of the
Czech and Slovak Federative Republic.
East Germany
On 22 July 1990 a law was passed recreating the
new states of the former
East Germany
East Germany, officially known as the German Democratic Republic (GDR), was a country in Central Europe from Foundation of East Germany, its formation on 7 October 1949 until German reunification, its reunification with West Germany (FRG) on ...
, which
were dissolved by the
East German government in 1952. The states are:
Brandenburg
Brandenburg, officially the State of Brandenburg, is a States of Germany, state in northeastern Germany. Brandenburg borders Poland and the states of Berlin, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Lower Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Saxony. It is the List of Ger ...
,
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (MV; ; ), also known by its Anglicisation, anglicized name Mecklenburg–Western Pomerania, is a Federated state, state in the north-east of Germany. Of the country's States of Germany, sixteen states, Mecklenburg-Vorpom ...
,
Saxony
Saxony, officially the Free State of Saxony, is a landlocked state of Germany, bordering the states of Brandenburg, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia, and Bavaria, as well as the countries of Poland and the Czech Republic. Its capital is Dresden, and ...
,
Saxony-Anhalt
Saxony-Anhalt ( ; ) is a States of Germany, state of Germany, bordering the states of Brandenburg, Saxony, Thuringia and Lower Saxony. It covers an area of
and has a population of 2.17 million inhabitants, making it the List of German states ...
and
Thuringia
Thuringia (; officially the Free State of Thuringia, ) is one of Germany, Germany's 16 States of Germany, states. With 2.1 million people, it is 12th-largest by population, and with 16,171 square kilometers, it is 11th-largest in area.
Er ...
. The law was to take effect on 14 October 1990.
On 31 August 1990 the Unification Treaty set an accession date of October 3 (modifying the State Creation Law to come into effect on that date). The Unification Treaty declared that (with few exceptions) at accession the laws of
East Germany
East Germany, officially known as the German Democratic Republic (GDR), was a country in Central Europe from Foundation of East Germany, its formation on 7 October 1949 until German reunification, its reunification with West Germany (FRG) on ...
would be replaced overnight by those of
West Germany
West Germany was the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) from its formation on 23 May 1949 until German reunification, its reunification with East Germany on 3 October 1990. It is sometimes known as the Bonn Republi ...
. The
Volkskammer approved the treaty on September 20 by a margin of 299-80—in effect, voting East Germany to dissolve itself.
On 3 October 1990 the five new states and
East Berlin
East Berlin (; ) was the partially recognised capital city, capital of East Germany (GDR) from 1949 to 1990. From 1945, it was the Allied occupation zones in Germany, Soviet occupation sector of Berlin. The American, British, and French se ...
(which was unified with
West Berlin
West Berlin ( or , ) was a political enclave which comprised the western part of Berlin from 1948 until 1990, during the Cold War. Although West Berlin lacked any sovereignty and was under military occupation until German reunification in 1 ...
),
were unified with
West Germany
West Germany was the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) from its formation on 23 May 1949 until German reunification, its reunification with East Germany on 3 October 1990. It is sometimes known as the Bonn Republi ...
in 1990.
The post-1990 united
Germany
Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...
is not a
successor state, but an enlarged continuation of the former West Germany. As such, the enlarged
Federal Republic of Germany retained the West German seats in international organizations, while the memberships in the
Warsaw Pact
The Warsaw Pact (WP), formally the Treaty of Friendship, Co-operation and Mutual Assistance (TFCMA), was a Collective security#Collective defense, collective defense treaty signed in Warsaw, Polish People's Republic, Poland, between the Sovi ...
and other international organizations to which East Germany belonged simply ceased to exist because East Germany ceased to exist.
Holy Roman Empire
The
dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire occurred ''
de facto'' on 6 August 1806, when the last
Holy Roman Emperor
The Holy Roman Emperor, originally and officially the Emperor of the Romans (disambiguation), Emperor of the Romans (; ) during the Middle Ages, and also known as the Roman-German Emperor since the early modern period (; ), was the ruler and h ...
,
Francis II of the
House of Habsburg-Lorraine
The House of Habsburg-Lorraine () originated from the marriage in 1736 of Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor, Francis III, Duke of Lorraine and Bar, and Maria Theresa of Habsburg monarchy, Austria, later successively List of Bohemian monarchs, Queen ...
, abdicated his title and released all imperial states and officials from their oaths and obligations to the empire. Since the
Middle Ages
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and ...
, the
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire, also known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation after 1512, was a polity in Central and Western Europe, usually headed by the Holy Roman Emperor. It developed in the Early Middle Ages, and lasted for a millennium ...
had been recognised by
Western Europe
Western Europe is the western region of Europe. The region's extent varies depending on context.
The concept of "the West" appeared in Europe in juxtaposition to "the East" and originally applied to the Western half of the ancient Mediterranean ...
ans as the legitimate continuation of the ancient
Western Roman Empire
In modern historiography, the Western Roman Empire was the western provinces of the Roman Empire, collectively, during any period in which they were administered separately from the eastern provinces by a separate, independent imperial court. ...
due to its emperors having been proclaimed as
Roman emperors by the
papacy
The pope is the bishop of Rome and the Head of the Church#Catholic Church, visible head of the worldwide Catholic Church. He is also known as the supreme pontiff, Roman pontiff, or sovereign pontiff. From the 8th century until 1870, the po ...
. Through this Roman legacy, the Holy Roman Emperors claimed to be
universal monarchs whose jurisdiction extended beyond their empire's formal borders to all of
Christian
A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a Monotheism, monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the wo ...
Europe and beyond. The decline of the Holy Roman Empire was a long and drawn-out process lasting centuries. The formation of the first modern
sovereign territorial states in the 16th and 17th centuries, which brought with it the idea that jurisdiction corresponded to actual territory governed, threatened the universal nature of the Holy Roman Empire.
Monasteries
The
dissolution of the Monasteries, was the set of administrative and legal processes between 1536 and 1541 by which
Henry VIII disbanded
monasteries,
priories,
convent
A convent is an enclosed community of monks, nuns, friars or religious sisters. Alternatively, ''convent'' means the building used by the community.
The term is particularly used in the Catholic Church, Lutheran churches, and the Anglican ...
s and
friaries, in
England, Wales and
Ireland
Ireland (, ; ; Ulster Scots dialect, Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean, in Northwestern Europe. Geopolitically, the island is divided between the Republic of Ireland (officially Names of the Irish state, named Irelan ...
, appropriated their income, disposed of their assets, and provided for their former personnel and functions.
Netherlands Antilles
The
Netherlands Antilles
The Netherlands Antilles (, ; ), also known as the Dutch Antilles, was a constituent Caribbean country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands consisting of the islands of Saba (island), Saba, Sint Eustatius, and Sint Maarten in the Lesser Antilles, ...
was an autonomous
Caribbean
The Caribbean ( , ; ; ; ) is a region in the middle of the Americas centered around the Caribbean Sea in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean, mostly overlapping with the West Indies. Bordered by North America to the north, Central America ...
country within the
Kingdom of the Netherlands
The Kingdom of the Netherlands (, ;, , ), commonly known simply as the Netherlands, is a sovereign state consisting of a collection of constituent territories united under the monarch of the Netherlands, who functions as head of state. The re ...
. It was dissolved on 10 October 2010.
[Officielebekendmakingen.nl �]
Besluit van 23 September 2010 tot vaststelling van het tijdstip van inwerkingtreding van de artikelen I en II van de Rijkswet wijziging Statuut in verband met de opheffing van de Nederlandse Antillen
/ref>
After dissolution, the "BES islands" of the Dutch Caribbean
The Dutch Caribbean (historically known as the Dutch West Indies) are the New World territories, colonies, and countries (former and current) of the Dutch Empire and the Kingdom of the Netherlands located in the Caribbean Sea, mainly the norther ...
—Bonaire
Bonaire is a Caribbean island in the Leeward Antilles, and is a Caribbean Netherlands, special municipality (officially Public body (Netherlands), "public body") of the Netherlands. Its capital is the port of Kralendijk, on the west (Windward an ...
, Sint Eustatius
Sint Eustatius, known locally as Statia, is an island in the Caribbean. It is a Caribbean Netherlands, special municipality (officially "Public body (Netherlands), public body") of the Netherlands.
The island is in the northern Leeward Islands ...
, and Saba—became the Caribbean Netherlands
The Caribbean Netherlands (, ) is a geographic region of the Netherlands located outside of Europe, in the Caribbean, consisting of three special municipalities. These are the islands of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba (island), Saba,"Bonair ...
, "special municipalities" of the Netherlands
, Terminology of the Low Countries, informally Holland, is a country in Northwestern Europe, with Caribbean Netherlands, overseas territories in the Caribbean. It is the largest of the four constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Nether ...
proper — a structure that only exists in the Caribbean. Meanwhile Curaçao
Curaçao, officially the Country of Curaçao, is a constituent island country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located in the southern Caribbean Sea (specifically the Dutch Caribbean region), about north of Venezuela.
Curaçao includ ...
and Sint Maarten
Sint Maarten () is a Countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands located in the Caribbean region of North America. With a population of 58,477 as of June 2023 on an area of , it encompasses ...
became constituent countries within the Kingdom of the Netherlands, along the lines of Aruba
Aruba, officially the Country of Aruba, is a constituent island country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands, in the southern Caribbean Sea north of the Venezuelan peninsula of Paraguaná Peninsula, Paraguaná and northwest of Curaçao. In 19 ...
, which separated from the Netherlands Antilles in 1986.
Ottoman Empire
The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire occurred between 1908 and 1922, and began with the Second Constitutional Era with the Young Turk Revolution. It restored the Ottoman constitution of 1876 and brought in multi-party politics with a two stage electoral system ( electoral law) under the Ottoman parliament. The constitution offered hope by freeing the empire's citizens to modernize the state's institutions and dissolve inter-communal tensions.
The occupation of Istanbul
The occupation of Istanbul () or occupation of Constantinople (12 November 1918 – 4 October 1923), the capital of the Ottoman Empire, by United Kingdom, British, France, French, Italy, Italian, and Greece, Greek forces, took place in accordan ...
along with the occupation of Izmir mobilised the Turkish national movement which ultimately won the Turkish War of Independence
, strength1 = May 1919: 35,000November 1920: 86,000Turkish General Staff, ''Türk İstiklal Harbinde Batı Cephesi'', Edition II, Part 2, Ankara 1999, p. 225August 1922: 271,000Celâl Erikan, Rıdvan Akın: ''Kurtuluş Savaşı tarih ...
. The formal abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate was performed by the Grand National Assembly of Turkey
The Grand National Assembly of Turkey ( ), usually referred to simply as the GNAT or TBMM, also referred to as , in Turkish, is the Unicameralism, unicameral Turkey, Turkish legislature. It is the sole body given the legislative prerogatives by ...
on 1 November 1922. The Sultan was declared '' persona non grata'' from the lands that the Ottoman Dynasty ruled since 1299.
Prussia
The Free State of Prussia
The Free State of Prussia (, ) was one of the States of the Weimar Republic, constituent states of Weimar Republic, Germany from 1918 to 1947. The successor to the Kingdom of Prussia after the defeat of the German Empire in World War I, it cont ...
was dissolved on 25 February 1947, by decree of the Allied Control Council
The Allied Control Council (ACC) or Allied Control Authority (), also referred to as the Four Powers (), was the governing body of the Allies of World War II, Allied Allied-occupied Germany, occupation zones in Germany (1945–1949/1991) and Al ...
.
Soviet Union
The dissolution of the Soviet Union
The Soviet Union was formally dissolved as a sovereign state and subject of international law on 26 December 1991 by Declaration No. 142-N of the Soviet of the Republics of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. Declaration No. 142-Н of ...
occurred between 1988 and 1991, and was the process of internal disintegration within the USSR
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
, which began with growing unrest in its various constituent republics developing into an incessant political and legislative conflict between the republics and the central government, and ended when the leaders of three primal republics (the Russian SFSR
The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (Russian SFSR or RSFSR), previously known as the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and the Russian Soviet Republic, and unofficially as Soviet Russia,Declaration of Rights of the labo ...
, the Ukrainian SSR
The Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, abbreviated as the Ukrainian SSR, UkrSSR, and also known as Soviet Ukraine or just Ukraine, was one of the Republics of the Soviet Union, constituent republics of the Soviet Union from 1922 until 1991. ...
and the Byelorussian SSR) declared it no longer existed, later accompanied by 11 more republics, resulting in President Mikhail Gorbachev
Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev (2 March 1931 – 30 August 2022) was a Soviet and Russian politician who served as the last leader of the Soviet Union from 1985 to dissolution of the Soviet Union, the country's dissolution in 1991. He served a ...
having to resign and what was left of the Soviet parliament formally acknowledging what had already taken place.
The failure of the 1991 August Coup, when Soviet government and military elites tried to overthrow Gorbachev and stop the "parade of sovereignties
The parade of sovereignties () was a series of declarations of sovereignty of various degrees by the republics of the Soviet Union and autonomous units within the republics ( autonomous republics, autonomous oblasts and autonomous okrugs) from ...
", led to the government in Moscow
Moscow is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Russia by population, largest city of Russia, standing on the Moskva (river), Moskva River in Central Russia. It has a population estimated at over 13 million residents with ...
losing most of its influence, and many republics proclaiming independence in the following days and months. The secession of the Baltic states, the first to declare their sovereignty and then their full independence, was recognized in September 1991. The Belovezha Accords were signed on December 8 by President Boris Yeltsin
Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin (1 February 1931 – 23 April 2007) was a Soviet and Russian politician and statesman who served as President of Russia from 1991 to 1999. He was a member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) from 1961 to ...
of Russia
Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the list of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the world, and extends across Time in Russia, eleven time zones, sharing Borders ...
, President Leonid Kravchuk of Ukraine
Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the List of European countries by area, second-largest country in Europe after Russia, which Russia–Ukraine border, borders it to the east and northeast. Ukraine also borders Belarus to the nor ...
, and Chairman
The chair, also chairman, chairwoman, or chairperson, is the presiding officer of an organized group such as a board, committee, or deliberative assembly. The person holding the office, who is typically elected or appointed by members of the gro ...
Stanislav Shushkevich of Belarus
Belarus, officially the Republic of Belarus, is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe. It is bordered by Russia to the east and northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest. Belarus spans an a ...
, recognising each other's independence and creating the Commonwealth of Independent States
The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is a regional organization, regional intergovernmental organization in Eurasia. It was formed following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. It covers an ar ...
(CIS). The remaining republics, with the exception of Georgia
Georgia most commonly refers to:
* Georgia (country), a country in the South Caucasus
* Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the southeastern United States
Georgia may also refer to:
People and fictional characters
* Georgia (name), a list of pe ...
, joined the Commonwealth of Independent States
The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is a regional organization, regional intergovernmental organization in Eurasia. It was formed following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. It covers an ar ...
on December 21, signing the Alma-Ata Declaration
On December 25, President Mikhail Gorbachev resigned, declared his office extinct, and handed over its powers—including control of the nuclear launch codes—to Yeltsin. That evening at 7:32 p.m., the Soviet flag was lowered from the Kremlin for the last time and replaced with the Russian national flag. On the next day, the Declaration 142-Н of the Supreme Soviet
The Supreme Soviet () was the common name for the legislative bodies (parliaments) of the Soviet socialist republics (SSR) in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). These soviets were modeled after the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, establ ...
's upper chamber, the Soviet of the Republics, recognised self-governing independence for the Soviet republics, formally dissolving the Union.[ Declaration № 142-Н of the Soviet of the Republics of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, formally establishing the dissolution of the Soviet Union as a state and subject of international law.] Both the Revolutions of 1989
The revolutions of 1989, also known as the Fall of Communism, were a revolutionary wave of liberal democracy movements that resulted in the collapse of most Communist state, Marxist–Leninist governments in the Eastern Bloc and other parts ...
in the Eastern Bloc
The Eastern Bloc, also known as the Communist Bloc (Combloc), the Socialist Bloc, the Workers Bloc, and the Soviet Bloc, was an unofficial coalition of communist states of Central and Eastern Europe, Asia, Africa, and Latin America that were a ...
and the dissolution of the Soviet Union marked the end of the Cold War
The Cold War was a period of global Geopolitics, geopolitical rivalry between the United States (US) and the Soviet Union (USSR) and their respective allies, the capitalist Western Bloc and communist Eastern Bloc, which lasted from 1947 unt ...
.
In the Post–Cold War era, aftermath of the Cold War, several of the Post-Soviet states, former Soviet republics have retained close links with Russia and formed Multilateralism, multilateral organizations such as the CIS, the Eurasian Economic Community, the Union State, the Eurasian Customs Union, and the Eurasian Economic Union, for economic and military cooperation. On the other hand, the Baltic states and the former Eastern Bloc countries joined NATO and the European Union, while Georgia and Ukraine have distanced themselves from Russia and express interest in following the same path.
United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves
The United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves was the transatlantic metropolis that controlled the Portuguese Empire, Portuguese colonial empire, with its overseas possessions in Africa and Asia.
Thus, from the point of view of Brazil, the elevation to the rank of a kingdom and the creation of the United Kingdom represented a change in status, from that of a colony to that of an equal member of a political union. In the wake of the Liberal Revolution of 1820 in Portugal, attempts to compromise the autonomy and even the unity of Brazil, War of Independence of Brazil, led to the breakdown of the union.
United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway
The dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden between the kingdoms of Norway and Sweden under the House of Bernadotte, was set in motion by a resolution of the Norwegian Parliament (the Storting) on 7 June 1905. Following some months of tension and fear of war between the neighboring kingdoms (then in personal union) – and a 1905 Norwegian union dissolution referendum, Norwegian plebiscite held on 13 August which overwhelmingly backed dissolution – negotiations between the two governments led to Sweden's recognition of Norway as an independent constitutional monarchy on 26 October 1905. On that date, Oscar II of Sweden, King Oscar II renounced his claim to the Monarchy of Norway, Norwegian throne, effectively dissolving the Union between Sweden and Norway, United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway, and this event was swiftly followed, on 18 November, by the accession to the Norwegian throne of Haakon VII, Prince Carl of Denmark, taking the name of Haakon VII.
Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata
The Dissolution of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, dissolution of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata was the independence and breaking up of the Spanish Empire, Spanish colony in South America. Most of the viceroyalty is now part of Argentina, and other regions belong to Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay.
Yugoslavia
The dissolution of Yugoslavia occurred as a result of a series of political upheavals and conflicts during the early 1990s. After a period of political and economic crisis in the 1980s, constituent republics of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia split apart, but the unresolved issues caused bitter inter-ethnic Yugoslav wars. The wars primarily affected War in Bosnia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, neighbouring parts of War in Croatia, Croatia and, some years later, Kosovo.
After the Allies of World War II, Allied victory in World War II, Yugoslavia was set up as a federation of six republics, with borders drawn along ethnic and historical lines: SR Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bosnia and Herzegovina, SR Croatia, Croatia, SR Macedonia, Macedonia, SR Montenegro, Montenegro, Socialist Republic of Serbia, Serbia, and Socialist Republic of Slovenia, Slovenia. In addition, two autonomous provinces were established within Serbia: SAP Vojvodina, Vojvodina and SAP Kosovo, Kosovo. Each of the republics had its own branch of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia party and a ruling elite, and any tensions were solved on the federal level. The Yugoslav model of state organisation, as well as a Market socialism, market socialist "middle way" between planned economy, planned and liberal economy, had been a relative success, and the country experienced a period of strong economic growth and relative political stability up to the 1980s, under dictatorial rule of Josip Broz Tito. After his death in 1980, the weakened system of federal government was left unable to cope with rising economic and political challenges.
In the 1980s, Albanians of Kosovo started to demand that their autonomous province be granted the status of a constituent republic, starting with the 1981 protests in Kosovo, 1981 protests. Ethnic tensions between Albanians and Kosovo Serbs remained high over the whole decade, which resulted in the growth of Serb opposition to the high autonomy of provinces and ineffective system of consensus at the federal level across Yugoslavia, which were seen as an obstacle for Serb interests. In 1987, Slobodan Milošević came to power in Serbia, and through a series of populist moves acquired ''de facto'' control over Kosovo, Vojvodina, and Montenegro, garnering a high level of support among Serbs for his centralist policies. Milošević was met with opposition by party leaders of the western republics of Slovenia and Croatia, who also advocated greater democratisation of the country in line with the Revolutions of 1989
The revolutions of 1989, also known as the Fall of Communism, were a revolutionary wave of liberal democracy movements that resulted in the collapse of most Communist state, Marxist–Leninist governments in the Eastern Bloc and other parts ...
in Eastern Europe. The League of Communists of Yugoslavia dissolved in January 1990 along federal lines. Republican communist organisations became the separate socialist parties.
During 1990, the socialists (former communists) lost power to ethnic separatist parties in the Elections in Yugoslavia, first multi-party elections held across the country, except in Serbia and Montenegro, where Milošević and his allies won. Nationalist rhetoric on all sides became increasingly heated. Between June 1991 and April 1992, four republics declared independence (only Serbia and Montenegro remained federated), but the status of ethnic Serbs outside Serbia and Montenegro, and that of ethnic Croats outside Croatia, remained unsolved. After a string of inter-ethnic incidents, the Yugoslav Wars ensued, first War in Croatia, in Croatia and then, most severely, in multi-ethnic Bosnian War, Bosnia and Herzegovina. The wars left long-term economic and political damage in the region, still felt there decades later.
Proposed dissolutions
Belgium
The dissolution of Belgium is a hypothetical situation which has been discussed by both Belgian and international media envisioning a split of Belgium, the country along linguistic divisions, with each of the Flemish Community (Flanders) and the French Community of Belgium, French-speaking Community (Wallonia) becoming independent states. Alternatively, it is hypothesized that Flanders could join the Netherlands (Greater Netherlands, Greater Netherlands movement) and Wallonia could join France (Rattachism, rattachist movement).
Both communities currently have a large degree of autonomy within the Belgian federation.
Complicating questions of partition are the status in a partitioned Belgium of Brussels; currently an autonomous bilingual region of itself — and the minority German-speaking Community of Belgium, German-speaking Community.
Iraq
Dissolution of Iraq has been proposed as a solution to the country's sectarian issues and wars. Those favouring dissolution claim Iraq is an artificially created state and as a remnant of the Ottoman Iraq, regional Ottoman rule and Mandatory Iraq, British colonial rule; the British authorities selected Sunni Islam, Sunni Arab elites from the region for appointments to government and ministry offices, furthering sectarian inequalities.
The sectarian divides are between the Ba'athism, Ba'athist Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region, loyalists (including Saddamist Ba'athism, Saddamists and Iraqi nationalism, Iraqi-Arab nationalists) (mostly also Sunni's), the Shia Islam in Iraq, Shia majority (South and East Iraq) and Sunni Islam in Iraq, Sunni minority (North and West Iraq) and the Minorities in Iraq, various ethnic minorities; with the Proposals for Assyrian autonomy in Iraq, Assyrian autonomy movement and Kurdish independence, independence ambitions of the Kurds in Iraq.
Sectarian issues between the Iraq's territorial disputes have long been a source of conflict. Between 1936 and 1975 there was the Shatt al-Arab dispute, long standing dispute over Shatt al-Arab, ending in 1974–75 Shatt al-Arab conflict, conflict. There was the 1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq, Shia uprising in 1979. In 1980 Iran was Iraqi invasion of Iran, invaded by neighbouring Ba'athist Iraq leading to an Iraq-Iran War, 8 year war partly to try and prevent Ruhollah Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini from Export of revolution, exporting the Iranian Revolution, 1979 Iranian Revolution movement to Shia Islam, Shia-majority Iraq and Shia–Sunni relations, threaten the Sunni Islam, Sunni-dominated Baathism, Ba'athist leadership. The invasion of Kuwait sparkied the Gulf War in 1990, and the 2003 invasion of Iraq, 2003 invasion sparked the Iraq War. The sectarian issue was particularly evident during the Iraqi Civil War (2006–2009), civil war between 2005 and 2009, as communal violence, intercommunal violence between Iraqi Sunni Islam, Sunni and Shi'a Islam, Shi'a factions became prevalent. In February 2006, the Sunni organization Al-Qaeda in Iraq 2006 al-Askari Mosque bombing, bombed one of the holiest sites in Shi'a Islam—the al-Askari Mosque in Samarra. This set off a wave of Shi'a reprisals against Sunnis followed by Sunni counterattacks. The conflict escalated over the next several months until by 2007, the National Intelligence Estimate described the situation as having elements of a civil war. In the mid to late 2010s, despite the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant having Territory of the Islamic State, lost territorial control in the Iraqi Civil War (2014–2017), civil war, the ISIL insurgency in Iraq (2017–present), insurgency continued.
Iraqi Kurdistan first gained autonomous status in a 1970 agreement with the Iraqi government, and its status was re-confirmed as the autonomous Kurdistan Region within the Federalism in Iraq, federal Iraqi republic in 2005. Further to the long-standing Iraqi–Kurdish conflict, there are numerous Disputed territories of Northern Iraq, disputed territories in the region. With the historical precedent set by the Kingdom of Kurdistan, the Kurdistan Regional Government has also held two unrecognised independence referendums: in 2005 Kurdistan Region independence referendum, 2005 and 2017 Kurdistan Region independence referendum, 2017. There was also a Kirkuk status referendum. Matter of Kurdish independence are further complicated by Kurdish–Turkish conflict (1978–present), conflict with Turkey, the previous Iraqi Kurdish Civil War, and the Syrian Civil War.
Kosovo
Kosovo, which unilaterally 2008 Kosovo declaration of independence, declared independence in 2008 from Serbia has been embroiled in a Political status of Kosovo, dispute over its status. Dissolution of Kosovo is a proposed solution in the context of Partition (politics), partition along ethnic lines, separating Serbs of Kosovo, Serb-dominated North Kosovo, and possibly some Kosovo Serb enclaves, enclaves in the south, from the rest of the Kosovar Albanians, Albanian-dominated Kosovo and the idea of the Political union, unification of Albania and Kosovo. The latter idea has been brought into connection with the Irredentism, irredentist concept of Greater Albania.
Syria
With the outbreak of the Syrian Civil War, Territory of the Islamic State, the territorial advance by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, which has in turn led to renewed calls of various separatism, separatist claims due to issues with Sectarianism and minorities in the Syrian Civil War, various sectarian divides, dissolution has been proposed as a solution. This has been especially true regarding the status of the Kurds in Syria who inhabit Syrian Kurdistan and Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria, Rojava However, so far federalisation of Syria seems a much more likely outcome with the establishment of the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria. Matters of an independent Kurdistan are further complicated by the Rojava conflict, Syrian Kurdish–Islamist conflict (2013–present), Kurdish-Islamist conflict and the Kurdish–Turkish conflict (1978–present), conflict with neighbouring Turkey.
United Kingdom
With the impact of Brexit, and strengthening of support for Scotland, Scottish Scottish independence, independence, various scenarios have been mooted regarding the future of the current United Kingdom. These events in turn have strengthened other independence movements in the United Kingdom; the Welsh independence, independence movement of Wales, Cornwall, Cornish Cornish independence, independence and called into question the status of Northern Ireland; including not only United Ireland, unification with the Republic of Ireland, but also Ulster nationalism, their own potential independence. A small London independence movement has been formed, whilst English independence and a Devolved English parliament, proposed English parliament movements have existed for some time already. Scottish independence itself has also called into question the Constitutional status of Orkney, Shetland and the Western Isles, constitutional status of Orkney, Shetland and the Western Isles. Other issues include the status of crown Dependencies; Jersey, Bailiwick of Guernsey, Guernsey (which includes the island of Guernsey and the autonomous Sark and Alderney), and the Isle of Man. The status of British Overseas Territories, especially Gibraltar, but also those which lie further afield (for example the Cayman Islands, Falkland Islands, Montserrat and Anguilla) is also linked, and in the context of the territorial evolution of the British Empire, linked to List of countries that have gained independence from the United Kingdom, their independence as the final part of Decolonization#British Empire, British decolonisation.
Therefore, a potential dissolution of the United Kingdom has been muted, with various potential nations and states emerging and changing their Constitution of the United Kingdom, constitutional status. It is seen as a resolution of the Devolution in the United Kingdom, various grievances and the balance of the countries of the United Kingdom, including the West Lothian question. Legal complexities relate to the complicated nature of British nationality law, and the status of the various Act of Union: Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542, 1535 and 1542 (Kingdom of England, England and Principality of Wales, Wales), Tender of Union, 1652 (Kingdom of Scotland, Scotland and Commonwealth of England, England), Acts of Union 1707, 1707 (Kingdom of Scotland, Scotland and Commonwealth of England, England to form Kingdom of Great Britain, Great Britain), and Acts of Union 1800, 1800 (Kingdom of Great Britain, Great Britain and Ireland
Ireland (, ; ; Ulster Scots dialect, Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean, in Northwestern Europe. Geopolitically, the island is divided between the Republic of Ireland (officially Names of the Irish state, named Irelan ...
to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, United Kingdom).
United States
The dissolution of the United States is a political science theory on the possible disintegration of the United States, United States of America.[Russian's Out-There Vision of the Six Republics of America Is Under the Microscope](_blank)
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''The Wall Street Journal''[American debacle - By Zbigniew Brzezinski](_blank)
''Los Angeles Times''
See also
* Dissolution (law)
* Dissolution of parliament
* Dissolution (disambiguation)
References
{{reflist
Dissolutions of countries