The Cossack raids largely developed as a reaction to the Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe, which began in 1441 and lasted until 1774. From onwards, the Cossacks (the Zaporozhian Cossacks of southern Ukraine and the Don Cossacks of southern Russia) conducted regular military offensives into the lands of the Crimean Khanate, the Nogai Horde, and the Ottoman Empire, where they would free History of slavery in the Muslim world, enslaved Christians before returning home with a significant amount of plunder and Slavery in medieval Europe, Muslim slaves. Though difficult to calculate, the level of devastation caused by the Cossack raids is roughly estimated to have been on par with that of the Crimean–Nogai slave raids. According to History of Ruthenians, Cossack raids during Sirko's Campaigns, Sirko's era were a hundred times more devastating than Crimean–Nogai raids.

Background

The first raid of the Zaporozhian Cossacks was recorded on 1 August, 1492, which was an Raid on Tiahynka, action against Tatars. During this period the Cossacks were less organised, with their raiding activities resembling those of "guerrilla warfare" or "steppe sport", with back-and-forth raiding between Cossack and Tatar raiders. Being a Cossack during this period was "more an occupation than a social status", as described by Mykhailo Hrushevsky. This has first changed in the 1580s, when Cossacks begun to acquire higher social status in their respective states and transformed into regular military formations. From the 1580s and for half of the 17th century, Cossack raids became a major problem for the Crimean Khanate and Ottoman Empire. Cossack raiders were successful in numerous raids due to their efficient adaption of gunpowder weaponry, allowing them to match the Crimean Khanate, Crimean-Nogai Horde, Nogai raiders and Ottoman Empire, Ottomans. Cossacks also made an efficient use of cannons. Though the Ottoman wars in Europe had enabled their occupation of virtually all of southeast Europe, the Cossacks were not deterred and often pushed to attack deep inside Anatolia, including the Ottoman capital city Istanbul. The sea raids of Zaporozhians only stopped in 1648, with the outbreak of Khmelnytsky Uprising and formation of the Cossack Hetmanate, but Don Cossacks continued sea raiding till 1660s/1670s. By the 18th century, Cossack raids decreased in their intensity, fully ceasing only in 1774 with the end of Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe, Crimean-Nogai raids in Eastern Europe.

Conflict and raids

The Cossack conflict with Tatars and Turks was often carried out in parallel with the Russian state. At the same time, these two acted independently of each other in the 16th century. Cossacks preferred an offensive doctrine, while in most cases the Russian state limited itself to passive defensive doctrine.

Tatar raids

In early 16th century, Russian state reinforced Oka (river), Oka and Ugra (Oka), Ugra rivers with fortifications and troops, but these were the only defensive measures at the time. The first Crimean raid on Russia took place in 1500–1503. In 1503, Tatars raided Chernigov, which Russian envoys complained about to the Khan. In 1527, Tatars reached as far as Oka and plundered Ryazan. During 1580–1590, Russian state built defensive fortresses along the southern line of Belgorod, Voronezh, Lebedyan and other cities. However, during 1607–1618, Russia was weakened by turmoil. Tatars took the opportunity to plunder Bolkhov, Dankov, Lebedyan, etc. Nearly all of these affected cities were covered by the "defensive line", but this didn't prevent Tatars from raiding them. In 1632, 20,000 Tatars devastated Yelets, Karachyev, Livny, along with other settlements. In 1633, another 20,000-strong Tatar army devastated Aleksin, Kalugu, Kashir, and other towns along the Oka (river), Oka. Even Moskov which was on another side Oka was affected. In 1635, Russian state responded with construction "Belgorod defense line" which was 800km from the Vorskla tributary of the Dnieper, to the Chelnova River. The construction only begun in 1646, taking over 10 years to complete. Alexis of Russia, Tsar Alexis expanded the defensive line to the Crimean border of Russia. Despite these measures, Tatar raiders were hardly deterred, abducting 150,000–200,000 people out of Russia in the first half of the 17th century. In addition, Russian state was forced to pay tribute to the Crimean Khanate every year, averaging 26,000 rubles yearly. Russia paid tribute of 1 million in half of the 17th century. This amount could be used to build 4 new cities by modern calculations.

Cossack raids

Cossacks launched raids both on the land and sea. Cossack cavalry often picked off wondering Tatars along the north Black Sea, while plundering Ottoman fortresses on the lower Dnieper, Danube and Crimea. In 1516, Cossacks besieged Ottoman fortress of Akkerman. In 1524, Cossacks first attacked Crimea. In 1545, Cossacks attacked Ochakov and looted its surroundings, capturing Ottoman delegation on the way. From third quarter of the 16th century, Cossack influence risen in the Black Sea. Cossacks of Ataman Foka Pokatilo devastated Akkerman. In 1575, Ataman Bogdan launched a Crimean Campaign (1575), campaign into Crimea, as a response to Tatar attacks on Ukrainian lands. Bogdan later launched raids on Yevpatoria, Kozlov, Trabzon, Trebizond and Sinop, Turkey, Sinop. In 1587, Cossacks again devastated Kozlov Akkerman. Ottomans responded to Cossack raids by establishing Azov Fortress, Azov and Ochakov fortresses as a defense from Cossack raids. Kizil-Kermen, Tavan and Aslan fortresses were also constructed on the upper Dnieper and Don Host Oblast, Don region. However, these small fortresses were inefficient in stopping the raiders, with Cossacks learning how to bypass them. The areas of Ochakov, Bender, Moldova, Tighina, Akkerman and Kakhovka, Islam-Kermen were raided by the Zaporozhian Cossacks 4-5 times annually. According to , Zaporozhians conducted over 40 raids, seizing 100,000 cattle, 17,000 horses and 360,000 in Polish złoty, złotys during 1570–1580s.

Russian policy and Cossacks

The Russian state first begun assisting Cossacks under Ivan IV, providing them with military supplies. Despite this, Russian policy of trying to appease the Crimean Khanate didn't stop. This policy had no effect and Tatar raids continued, as the Crimean Khans were unwilling to negotiate, unlike their Poland-Lithuania, Polish and Swedish Empire, Swedish counterparts. At one point, the Russian state ordered Cossacks to stop raiding Tatars, with threats on cutting off financial and military support to Cossacks. However, Cossacks ignored these orders most of the time. In response, Russian state carried out their threats on cutting off support, even responding with economic embargo of the Zaporozhian Sich, Sich and Don Host Oblast, Don region. At some points, Russian state even got into armed confrontations with Cossacks, in order to appease the Crimean Khanate and Ottoman Empire. In early 1630, Russian state ordered Don Cossacks to stop raiding Tatars and Turks. Don Cossacks were disobedient to these orders and were willing to revolt. However, Zaporozhian Cossacks had minimal connections with the Russian state during this time, acting more recklessly.

Assessment

The inefficiency of Russian doctrine against Tatar raids was attributed to wrong strategy, which sought to appease the raiders and only limited itself to defensive actions, combined with defenses being incapable of stopping the raiders nor inflicting heavy losses on them. Tatar raiders could only be restrained through offensive actions, which were only carried out by the Cossacks on frequent basis. Cossacks didn't limit their actions to passive defense. They've become both the inhabitants and defenders in border areas. Cossacks organised defenses which were efficient in repelling Tatar attacks and responded to losses inflicted by Tatars with retaliatory attacks. In this regard, Cossack doctrine was more efficient in dealing with Tatar raids.

Sea raids

Piracy in the Black Sea was rare, until Cossacks begun to conduct sea raids. Until the mid-16th century, Ottoman superiority in the sea was undisputed. However, this has changed with frequent sea raids of the Cossacks after 1550s. Ottoman Empire, Ottoman officials viewed the beginning of Cossack sea raiding with a massive concern, as outbreak of banditry in the Black Sea. However, Cossacks were a lot more organised unlike petty bandits. Cossacks were capable adapting to harsh frontier conditions and utilize the environment to their use, allowing them to harass an Empire as large as the Ottomans. In addition, Cossack society attracted diverse sets of individuals, from escaped serfdom, serfs to mercenaries and dissenters of neighbouring Empires, which found an ungoverned Wild Fields appealing. For the Cossacks, sea raiding was part of their economic incentive. Cossacks developed a sort of "water culture" due to their location of living near the rivers, combined with their boats named Chaika (boat), chaikas, which surprisingly resembled upgraded Viking ship, viking ships. Cossacks could call up to 300 chaikas for a campaign, which had a higher mobility than Ottoman ships. Cossacks on their chaikas were active in the Black Sea. French military engineer Guillaume Le Vasseur de Beauplan, Vasseur de Beauplan provided his account of Cossack sailing:

Impact of sea raids

The need to counter Cossack sea raids, even if it wasn't a complete success, made Ottomans pull a significant amount of their naval forces out of the Mediterranean Sea, weakening their influence. Cossack sea raids also had an economic impact, discouraging trade on Ottoman shore due to risk of Cossack attacks. As explorer Evliya Celebi noted, rural population of Sinop, Turkey, Sinop was unwilling to engage in agriculture, as they believed their harvest was going to get destroyed during Cossack attacks. In long-term, Cossack raids had demonstrated that the Ottoman Empire, which had Ottoman conquest of Europe, conquered southeast Europe centuries prior, wasn't invincible and their era of influence over European affairs was coming to an end. Both European and Ottoman chronicler descriptions of the devastation caused by Cossack sea raids resembled those of Goths, Gothic sea attacks on the Byzantine Empire in the 5th century.

Impact

Crimean Khanate and Nogai Horde

When exploring Crimea, Evliya Çelebi noted the signs of significant depopulation of many Crimean towns and villages, which he attributed to Cossack raids. In addition to devastation of Tatar lands, Cossack raids also had a deterring effect on Tatar raiders, limiting their ability to devastate Ukrainian lands. Apart from all the demographic, military and economic effects, Cossack raiding also had a psychological effect on the Tatar population, especially during the era of Cossack leader Ivan Sirko. Polish chronicler Wespazjan Kochowski noted the following attitude of Tatars surrounding Sirko in Crimea:

Ottoman Empire

Cossack raids inflicted colossal economic losses on the Ottoman Empire, resulting in decline of its military power. The Zaporozhian raids during 1672–1674 had the most impactful psychological effect on Turks. Among the most influential Ottoman Sultans reportedly admitted that thinking about Cossacks gave him difficulty sleeping during night. In 1675, Mehmed IV, Sultan Mehmed IV demanded the Zaporozhian Cossacks led by Ivan Sirko to submit to the Ottoman rule. To which, Cossacks responded with a semi-legendary letter full of profanities and insults. This inspired most popular painting in Ukrainian-Russian history, Ilya Repin's ''Reply of the Zaporozhian Cossacks''.

Europe

The Zaporozhian Cossacks have proven to be more adaptable in comparison to their Tatar counterpart, with their popularity growing in Europe. In the 16th century, Chevalier commented on them: "there was no warrior better fitted to outfight a Tatar than a Zaporozhian". Ottoman Sultans often sent complaints to the neighbouring states about Zaporozhian attacks, but the rulers of these states declared they have no association with them. Tatars and Turks at times inflict considerable losses on them. In 1593, Tatars burnt Tomakivka#History, Tomakivka Sich while the Cossacks were away. However, Zaporozhian Host again proven their adaptability, as they had no problems with recruitment and building new fleet in a short period of time, only having issues with finding horses. Pope Clement VIII, even Habsburg Emperors and Polish Kings recognised their efficiency in fighting Ottomans, seeking them as allies. Feodor I of Russia, Tsar Feodor I described Zaporozhian Cossacks to the Austrian delegation as: "good fighters, but cruel and treacherous". Italian Dominican Order, Dominican missionary Emidio Portelli d’Ascoli noted about the brutality of Cossack raids: French military engineer Guillaume Le Vasseur de Beauplan, Vasseur de Beauplan expressed the same sentiment:

Incomplete list of Cossack raids

This is an incomplete list of Cossack raids.

References

Bibliography

* * * * * * * *{{Cite web , first=Михаил , last=Ивануц , title=К вопросу об участии казаков в боевых действиях по осаде и обороне укрепленных пунктов в XVI в. , url=http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/40604 , publisher=Нові дослідження пам’яток козацької доби в Україні: Зб. наук , year=2012 , language=ru Wars involving the Ottoman Empire Crimean Khanate Cossacks Zaporozhian Cossacks History of Ukraine History of Russia Military history of Ukraine Military history of Zaporizhzhia Military history of Russia