Controversy Over Ethnic And Linguistic Identity In Montenegro
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There are several points of dispute over the
ethnic An ethnicity or ethnic group is a group of people with shared attributes, which they collectively believe to have, and long-term endogamy. Ethnicities share attributes like language, culture, common sets of ancestry, traditions, society, re ...
and
linguistic Linguistics is the scientific study of language. The areas of linguistic analysis are syntax (rules governing the structure of sentences), semantics (meaning), Morphology (linguistics), morphology (structure of words), phonetics (speech sounds ...
identity of several communities in
Montenegro , image_flag = Flag of Montenegro.svg , image_coat = Coat of arms of Montenegro.svg , coa_size = 80 , national_motto = , national_anthem = () , image_map = Europe-Mont ...
, some of them related to identity of people who self-identify as ethnic
Montenegrins Montenegrins (, or ) are a South Slavic ethnic group that share a common ancestry, culture, history, and language, identified with the country of Montenegro. Montenegrins are mostly Orthodox Christians; however, the population also includes ...
, while some other identity issues are also related to communities of
Serbs The Serbs ( sr-Cyr, Срби, Srbi, ) are a South Slavs, South Slavic ethnic group native to Southeastern Europe who share a common Serbian Cultural heritage, ancestry, Culture of Serbia, culture, History of Serbia, history, and Serbian lan ...
,
Croats The Croats (; , ) are a South Slavs, South Slavic ethnic group native to Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and other neighboring countries in Central Europe, Central and Southeastern Europe who share a common Croatian Cultural heritage, ancest ...
,
Bosniaks The Bosniaks (, Cyrillic script, Cyrillic: Бошњаци, ; , ) are a South Slavs, South Slavic ethnic group native to the Southeast European historical region of Bosnia (region), Bosnia, today part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and who sha ...
and ethnic Muslims. All of those issues are mutually interconnected and highly politicized. The central issue is whether self-identified Montenegrins constitute a distinct
ethnic group An ethnicity or ethnic group is a group of people with shared attributes, which they collectively believe to have, and long-term endogamy. Ethnicities share attributes like language, culture, common sets of ancestry, traditions, society, re ...
or a subgroup of some other nation, as often claimed by self-identified Serbs. This divide has its historical roots in the first decades of the 20th century, during which the pivotal political issue was the dilemma between retaining national sovereignty of Montenegro, advocated by supporters of the
Petrović-Njegoš dynasty The House of Petrović-Njegoš (Serbian Cyrillic alphabet, Serbian Cyrillic: , / ) is an old Serbian medieval nobility, Serbian noble family that ruled Montenegro from 1697 to 1918. History Origin "Bogut" or "Boguta" is believed to be the olde ...
, most notably Greens, i.e. members of the
True People's Party The True People's Party (, abbr. ПНС/ PNS), also known as the Pravaši (''Rightists''), was a conservative and monarchist political party in the Principality of Montenegro and the Kingdom of Montenegro, founded in 1907. The party represented th ...
, and supporters of integration with the
Kingdom of Serbia The Kingdom of Serbia was a country located in the Balkans which was created when the ruler of the Principality of Serbia, Milan I of Serbia, Milan I, was proclaimed king in 1882. Since 1817, the Principality was ruled by the Obrenović dynast ...
, and consequently with other South Slavic peoples under the Karađorđević dynasty, advocated by the Whites (gathered around the People's Party). This dispute renewed during the
dissolution of Yugoslavia After a period of political and economic crisis in the 1980s, the constituent republics of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia split apart in the early 1990s. Unresolved issues from the breakup caused a series of inter-ethnic Yugoslav ...
and subsequent secession of Montenegro from the state union with Serbia after the
2006 Montenegrin independence referendum An independence referendum was held in Montenegro on 21 May 2006. It was approved by 55.5% of voters, narrowly passing the 55% threshold. By 23 May, preliminary referendum results were recognized by all five permanent members of the United Natio ...
. According to the 2023 census data, 41.12% of people in Montenegro identify as ethnic Montenegrins (decrease of 3.86% from 2011), while 32.93% declare as ethnic Serbs (increase of 4.20% from 2011); 43.18% said they spoke "
Serbian Serbian may refer to: * Pertaining to Serbia in Southeast Europe; in particular **Serbs, a South Slavic ethnic group native to the Balkans ** Serbian language ** Serbian culture **Demographics of Serbia, includes other ethnic groups within the co ...
" whereas 34.57% declared " Montenegrin" as their
native language A first language (L1), native language, native tongue, or mother tongue is the first language a person has been exposed to from birth or within the critical period hypothesis, critical period. In some countries, the term ''native language'' ...
.


Nationalism in Montenegro

There are generally two variants of nationalism in Montenegro, pro-Montenegrin and pro-Serb. Pro-Montenegrin nationalism seeks and defends an independant Montenegro, such as exists in the present. Pro-Serb nationalism typically seeks a union with Serbia, such as the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia The State Union of Serbia and Montenegro or simply Serbia and Montenegro, known until 2003 as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and commonly referred to as FR Yugoslavia (FRY) or simply Yugoslavia, was a country in Southeast Europe locate ...
. Pro-Montenegrin nationalism focuses on the difference in culture, ethnicity, and language as a means to justify the need for an independent Montenegrin state. On the other hand, Pro-Serb nationalism focuses on the similarities between Montenegrins and Serbians as a means to justify unification of the two states.


History

Metropolitan Danilo I (r. 1696–1735) called himself "Duke of the
Serb The Serbs ( sr-Cyr, Срби, Srbi, ) are a South Slavic ethnic group native to Southeastern Europe who share a common Serbian ancestry, culture, history, and language. They primarily live in Serbia, Kosovo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia ...
land". Metropolitan Sava Petrović called his people, the
Montenegrins Montenegrins (, or ) are a South Slavic ethnic group that share a common ancestry, culture, history, and language, identified with the country of Montenegro. Montenegrins are mostly Orthodox Christians; however, the population also includes ...
, the "
Serbia , image_flag = Flag of Serbia.svg , national_motto = , image_coat = Coat of arms of Serbia.svg , national_anthem = () , image_map = , map_caption = Location of Serbia (gree ...
n nation" (1766).
Petar I Petrović-Njegoš Petar I Petrović-Njegoš (; 1748 – 31 October 1830) was the Prince-Bishop of Montenegro from 1784 to 1830 and Exarch (legate) of the Serbian Orthodox Church in Montenegro. He was the most popular spiritual and military leader from the Petro ...
(r. 1784–1830) was the conceiver of a plan to form a new Slavo-Serbian Empire by joining
Bay of Kotor The Bay of Kotor ( sh-Latn-Cyrl, Boka kotorska, Бока которска, separator=" / ", ), also known as the Boka ( sh-Cyrl, Бока), is a winding bay of the Adriatic Sea in southwestern Montenegro and the region of Montenegro concentrated a ...
,
Dubrovnik Dubrovnik, historically known as Ragusa, is a city in southern Dalmatia, Croatia, by the Adriatic Sea. It is one of the most prominent tourist destinations in the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean, a Port, seaport and the centre of the Dubrovni ...
,
Dalmatia Dalmatia (; ; ) is a historical region located in modern-day Croatia and Montenegro, on the eastern shore of the Adriatic Sea. Through time it formed part of several historical states, most notably the Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Croatia (925 ...
,
Herzegovina Herzegovina ( or ; sh-Latn-Cyrl, Hercegovina, separator=" / ", Херцеговина, ) is the southern and smaller of two main geographical Regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina, regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the other being Bosnia (reg ...
to Montenegro and some of the highland neighbours (1807), he also wrote "The Russian Czar would be recognized as the Tsar of the Serbs and the Metropolitan of Montenegro would be his assistant. The leading role in the restoration of the Serbian Empire belongs to Montenegro." In the late 19th century Montenegro's aspirations mirrored that of Serbia — unification and independence of Serb-inhabited lands. Njegoš (r. 1830–1851), regarded the greatest Montenegrin poet, was a leading Serb figure and instrumental in codifying the Kosovo Myth as the central theme of the Serbian national movement. The
Petrović-Njegoš dynasty The House of Petrović-Njegoš (Serbian Cyrillic alphabet, Serbian Cyrillic: , / ) is an old Serbian medieval nobility, Serbian noble family that ruled Montenegro from 1697 to 1918. History Origin "Bogut" or "Boguta" is believed to be the olde ...
tried to take the role as the Serb leader and unifier, but Montenegro's small size and weak economy led to the recognition of the primacy of the Karađorđević dynasty (in Serbia) in this respect. Although Montenegrins espoused a Serb identity, they were also proud of their state, especially in the
Cetinje Cetinje ( cnr-Cyrl, Цетиње, ) is a List of cities and towns in Montenegro, town in Montenegro. It is the former royal capital ( cnr-Latn-Cyrl, prijestonica, приjестоница, separator=" / ") of Montenegro and is the location of sev ...
area, the capital of the
Kingdom of Montenegro The Kingdom of Montenegro was a monarchy in southeastern Europe, present-day Montenegro, during the tumultuous period of time on the Balkan Peninsula leading up to and during World War I. Officially it was a constitutional monarchy, but absolu ...
. The sense of distinct statehood bred an autonomist sentiment in part of the Montenegrin population following the unification with Serbia (and dissolution of Montenegro) in 1918. During the
First World War World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
, a controversy over ethnic identity of Montenegrins was sparked by lawyer Ivo Pilar who claimed that during the early medieval times, territory of modern-day Montenegro belonged to
Red Croatia Red Croatia (; ) is a pseudohistorical term used for the southeastern parts of Roman Dalmatia and some other territories, including parts of present-day Montenegro, Albania, the Herzegovina region of Bosnia and Herzegovina and southeastern Croat ...
, developing from that a theory of Croatian ethnic origin of Montenegrins. After the war, that theory was accepted and developed by
Savić Marković Štedimlija Savić Marković Štedimlija ( sr-cyrl, Савић Марковић Штедимлија; 12 January 1906 – 25 January 1971) was a Montenegrin writer. He studied the history of Croatia and was an associate of the Lexicographic Institute in Zagr ...
, who claimed that Montenegrins were in fact a branch of Croatian people. It has been argued by some that there was no separate Montenegrin nation before 1945; they claim that the language, history, religion and culture of Montenegro were considered unquestionably Serbian.
Josef Korbel Josef Korbel (; September 20, 1909 – July 18, 1977) was a Czech-American diplomat and political scientist. During his public career, he served as Czechoslovakia's ambassador to Yugoslavia and was the country's representative to the United Natio ...
stated, in 1951, that "The Montenegrins proudly called themselves Serbs, and even today it would be difficult to find people of the older generations who would say they are Montenegrin. Only young Communists accept and propagate the theory of a Montenegrin nation." The
Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia The Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia,; ; commonly abbreviated as the AVNOJ, was a deliberative and legislative body that was established in Bihać, Yugoslavia, in November 1942. It was established by Josip Broz T ...
(AVNOJ, 1942–45) recognized five constituent peoples of Yugoslavia: Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Macedonians and Montenegrins. Until the 1990s, most of the Montenegrins defined themselves as both Serbs and Montenegrins. The vast majority of Montenegrins declared themselves as ''Montenegrins'' in the 1971–1991 censuses because they were citizens of the Socialist Republic of Montenegro. The
1992 Montenegrin independence referendum The 1992 Montenegrin sovereignty referendum was the first referendum regarding Montenegrin sovereignty, held on 1 March 1992 in SR Montenegro, a constituent republic of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The referendum was the outcom ...
, which Montenegrin separatists boycotted, saw 96% in favour of Montenegro remaining a part of rump Yugoslavia (
FR Yugoslavia The State Union of Serbia and Montenegro or simply Serbia and Montenegro, known until 2003 as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and commonly referred to as FR Yugoslavia (FRY) or simply Yugoslavia, was a country in Southeast Europe locate ...
Serbia and Montenegro The State Union of Serbia and Montenegro or simply Serbia and Montenegro, known until 2003 as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and commonly referred to as FR Yugoslavia (FRY) or simply Yugoslavia, was a country in Southeast Europe locate ...
). Until 1996, a 'pro-Serbian consensus predominated in Montenegrin politics'. As Montenegro began to seek independence from Serbia with the ĐukanovićMilošević split after the
Yugoslav Wars The Yugoslav Wars were a series of separate but related#Naimark, Naimark (2003), p. xvii. ethnic conflicts, wars of independence, and Insurgency, insurgencies that took place from 1991 to 2001 in what had been the Socialist Federal Republic of ...
, the Montenegrin nationalist movement emphasized the difference between the Montenegrin and Serbian identities and that the term "Montenegrin" never implied belonging to the wider Serb identity. The people had to make a choice whether they supported Montenegrin independence – the choosing of identity seems to have been based on their stance on independence. Now, those who supported independence redefined the Montenegrin identity as a separate identity (unlike the previous overlapping Montenegrin/Serbian identity espoused by the later rulers from the Montenegrin Petrović-Njegoš dynasty), while those who supported federation with Serbia increasingly insisted on their Serb identity. According to historian Srdja Pavlović, the Montenegrins preserved the sense of their political and cultural distinctiveness with regard to the other South Slavic groups and continuously reaffirmed it through history. According to Pavlović, the notion of Serbdom was understood by Montenegrins to be their belonging to the
Eastern Orthodox Eastern Orthodoxy, otherwise known as Eastern Orthodox Christianity or Byzantine Christianity, is one of the three main Branches of Christianity, branches of Chalcedonian Christianity, alongside Catholic Church, Catholicism and Protestantism ...
faith and to Christianity in general, as well as the larger South Slavic context. They incorporated this idea in the building blocks of their national individuality. Because it was understood as the ideology of a constant struggle, this Montenegrin Serbdom did not stand in opposition to a distinct character of Montenegrin national identity. Rather it was used as a tool of pragmatic politics in order to achieve the final goal. Montenegrins used the terms Serbs and Serbdom whenever they referred to South Slavic elements rallied in an anti-Ottoman coalition and around Christian Cross. Whenever they referred to particular elements of their social structure and their political system, they used the term Montenegrin. The pro-Yugoslav (unionist) side, headed by
Momir Bulatović Momir Bulatović ( sh-Cyrl, Момир Булатовић; 21 September 1956 – 30 June 2019) was a Yugoslav and Montenegrin politician. He was the first president of the Republic of Montenegro from 1990 to 1998, after which he served as the Pr ...
, stressed that Serbians and Montenegrins shared the same ethnicity (as Serbs) and evoked 'the unbreakable unity of Serbia and Montenegro, of one people and one flesh and blood'. Bulatović promoted an exclusive Serb identity for the majority Orthodox population.


Revisionism

There is an ongoing
historical revisionism In historiography, historical revisionism is the reinterpretation of a historical account. It usually involves challenging the orthodox (established, accepted or traditional) scholarly views or narratives regarding a historical event, timespa ...
in Montenegro, where Montenegrin identity is promoted with the "
Duklja Duklja ( sr-Cyrl, Дукља; ; ) was a medieval South Slavs, South Slavic state which roughly encompassed the territories of modern-day southeastern Montenegro, from the Bay of Kotor in the west to the Bojana river in the east, and to the sou ...
(Doclean)
narrative A narrative, story, or tale is any account of a series of related events or experiences, whether non-fictional (memoir, biography, news report, documentary, travel literature, travelogue, etc.) or fictional (fairy tale, fable, legend, thriller ...
" as
founding myth An origin myth is a type of myth that explains the beginnings of a natural or social aspect of the world. Creation myths are a type of origin myth narrating the formation of the universe. However, numerous cultures have stories that take place a ...
.


Demographic history


Gallery

Image:Crna_Gora_-_Etnicki_sastav_po_opstinama_2011_1.png, Ethnic structure by municipalities. Image:MontenegroLanguage2011.PNG, Linguistic structure by settlements. Image:Linguistic map of Montenegro by municipality.svg, Linguistic structure by municipalities. Image:MontenegroSerbian2011.PNG, Serbian language by settlements. Image:MontenegroMontenegrin2011.PNG, Montenegrin language by settlements. Image:Montenegro territory expanded (1830-1944).png, Expansion of Montenegro: the region of Old Montenegro represented in the darkest shade (18th century) Image:Montenegro referendum 2006.svg, Results of the Independence referendum by municipalities.


See also

*
Controversy over ethnic and linguistic identity in Moldova A controversy exists over the national identity and name of the native language of the main ethnic group in Moldova. The issue more frequently disputed is whether Moldovans constitute a subgroup of Romanians or a separate ethnic group. While there ...
*
Old Montenegro Old Montenegro ( Montenegrin and sr-Latn-Cyrl, Stara Crna Gora, Стара Црна Гора, separator=" / "), also known as Montenegro proper ( sr-Latn-Cyrl, Prava Crna Gora, Права Црна Гора, separator=" / ", label=none), or ...
*
Serbian–Montenegrin unionism Serbian–Montenegrin unionism () is a socio-political movement which arose in the Balkans after the Breakup of Yugoslavia, breakup of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, former Yugoslavia. It advocates Montenegro being in a political uni ...
*
Yugoslavism Yugoslavism, Yugoslavdom, or Yugoslav nationalism is an ideology supporting the notion that the South Slavs, namely the Bosniaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Macedonians (ethnic group), Macedonians, Montenegrins, Serbs and Slovenes belong to a single ...


References


Sources

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Further reading

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External links

*{{cite news, title=Jedan jezik, a dve gramatike, publisher=Novosti, url=https://www.novosti.rs/vesti/planeta.300.html:611214-Jedan-jezik-a-dve-gramatike Politics of Montenegro Serbian language Montenegrin language
Montenegro , image_flag = Flag of Montenegro.svg , image_coat = Coat of arms of Montenegro.svg , coa_size = 80 , national_motto = , national_anthem = () , image_map = Europe-Mont ...
Linguistic controversies Montenegro–Serbia relations