Conservatism in Peru () is a broad system of

conservative Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political philosophy and ideology that seeks to promote and preserve traditional institutions, customs, and values. The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civiliza ...

political beliefs in

Peru Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the south and west by the Pac ...

, characterized by support for

Catholic The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...

values, social stability and

social order The term social order can be used in two senses: In the first sense, it refers to a particular system of social structures and institutions. Examples are the ancient, the feudal, and the capitalist social order. In the second sense, social orde ...

. Peruvian conservatism has encompassed a wide range of theories and ideologies in the last two hundred years. In contrast with nearly nations like

Colombia Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia, is a country primarily located in South America with Insular region of Colombia, insular regions in North America. The Colombian mainland is bordered by the Caribbean Sea to the north, Venezuel ...

or Chile, Peru has not developed a concrete conservative political tradition. Peru is considered to be one of the most conservative nations in Latin America, especially with

social conservatism Social conservatism is a political philosophy and a variety of conservatism which places emphasis on Tradition#In political and religious discourse, traditional social structures over Cultural pluralism, social pluralism. Social conservatives ...

. Right-wing groups in Peru typically espouse

authoritarian Authoritarianism is a political system characterized by the rejection of political plurality, the use of strong central power to preserve the political ''status quo'', and reductions in democracy, separation of powers, civil liberties, and ...

beliefs. Historian

Antonio Zapata Antonio Zapata y Cisneros, also listed as Zapata y Mendoza,Salvador Miranda (Madrid, 8 October 1550 – Madrid, c. 27 April 1635) was a Spanish bishop. He served as bishop of Cádiz and Pamplona, archbishop of Burgos, cardinal, councillor of s ...

describes Peru as a "right-wing country"; the only left-wing government in contemporary history until the election of

Pedro Castillo José Pedro Castillo Terrones (; born 19 October 1969) is a Peruvian politician, former elementary school teacher, and union leader who served as the President of Peru from 28 July 2021 until Third impeachment and removal of Pedro Castillo, he ...

in 2021 was that of

Juan Velasco Alvarado Juan Francisco Velasco Alvarado (June 16, 1910 – December 24, 1977) was a Peruvian Army general, general who served as the President of Peru after a successful 1968 Peruvian coup d'état, coup d'état against Fernando Belaúnde's presidency ...

(1968–1975), author of an agrarian reform and the nationalization of strategic sectors. Social conservatism is also very present on the political left.

History

Beginnings of the Republic

The weakness of political parties in Peruvian politics has been recognized throughout the nation's history, with competing leaders fighting for power following the collapse of the

Spanish Empire The Spanish Empire, sometimes referred to as the Hispanic Monarchy (political entity), Hispanic Monarchy or the Catholic Monarchy, was a colonial empire that existed between 1492 and 1976. In conjunction with the Portuguese Empire, it ushered ...

Viceroyalty of Peru The Viceroyalty of Peru (), officially known as the Kingdom of Peru (), was a Monarchy of Spain, Spanish imperial provincial administrative district, created in 1542, that originally contained modern-day Peru and most of the Spanish Empire in ...

. The

Peruvian War of Independence The Peruvian War of Independence () was a series of military conflicts in Peru from 1809 to 1826 that resulted in the country's independence from the Spanish Empire. Part of the broader Spanish American wars of independence, it led to the dis ...

saw

aristocrats Aristocracy (; ) is a form of government that places power in the hands of a small, privileged ruling class, the aristocrats. Across Europe, the aristocracy exercised immense economic, political, and social influence. In Western Christian co ...

with land and wealthy merchants cooperate to fight the Spanish Empire, though the aristocrats would later obtain greater power and lead an

oligarchy Oligarchy (; ) is a form of government in which power rests with a small number of people. Members of this group, called oligarchs, generally hold usually hard, but sometimes soft power through nobility, fame, wealth, or education; or t ...

headed by ''

caudillos A ''caudillo'' ( , ; , from Latin , diminutive of ''caput'' "head") is a type of personalist leader wielding military and political power. There is no precise English translation for the term, though it is often used interchangeably with " mil ...

'' that defended the existing

feudalist Feudalism, also known as the feudal system, was a combination of legal, economic, military, cultural, and political customs that flourished in medieval Europe from the 9th to 15th centuries. Broadly defined, it was a way of structuring societ ...

''haciendas''. Bartolomé Herrera is considered the most influential conservative thinker of 19th-century Peru. Herrera opposed democracy and liberalism strongly supporting

elitism Elitism is the notion that individuals who form an elite — a select group with desirable qualities such as intellect, wealth, power, physical attractiveness, notability, special skills, experience, lineage — are more likely to be construc ...

and authoritarianism in a belief that the Catholic Church should hold authority through a

theocracy Theocracy is a form of autocracy or oligarchy in which one or more deity, deities are recognized as supreme ruling authorities, giving divine guidance to human intermediaries, with executive and legislative power, who manage the government's ...

divine law Divine law is any body of law that is perceived as deriving from a Transcendence (religion), transcendent source, such as the will of God or godsin contrast to man-made law or to secular law. According to Angelos Chaniotis and Rudolph F. Peters, di ...

, arguing that Peru's independence from Spain had reversed this, stating "the principle of obedience had perished in the struggle emancipation". He believed that after the Spanish Empire relinquished its authority over Peru, the new structure of

popular sovereignty Popular sovereignty is the principle that the leaders of a state and its government A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, generally a State (polity), state. In the case of its broad associativ ...

led to lawlessness in the nation and that citizens only obeyed laws when it was beneficial. Opposed to the

social contract theory In moral and political philosophy, the social contract is an idea, theory, or model that usually, although not always, concerns the legitimacy of the authority of the state over the individual. Conceptualized in the Age of Enlightenment, it is ...

, Herrera stated that the idea was "the seed of revolution, crimes and inevitable slave". Herrera's thoughts would evolve in to believing he was a direct representative of God, stating "Obey the constituted authorities. Let tremble those who do not obey me". The Peruvian press would describe Herrera's ideas as supporting

despotism In political science, despotism () is a government, form of government in which a single entity rules with absolute Power (social and political), power. Normally, that entity is an individual, the despot (as in an autocracy), but societies whi ...

and that they belonged to the Dark Ages. Responding to criticism in the press, Herrera would write: Thus, Herrera believed that humans could not even interpret

natural law Natural law (, ) is a Philosophy, philosophical and legal theory that posits the existence of a set of inherent laws derived from nature and universal moral principles, which are discoverable through reason. In ethics, natural law theory asserts ...

, let alone make laws themselves. He would also supported the ''

caudillo A ''caudillo'' ( , ; , from Latin language, Latin , diminutive of ''caput'' "head") is a type of Personalist dictatorship, personalist leader wielding military and political power. There is no precise English translation for the term, though it ...

Ramón Castilla Ramón Castilla y Marquesado (; 31 August 1797 – 30 May 1867) was a Peruvian ''caudillo'' who served as President of Peru three times as well as the Interim President of Peru (Revolution Self-proclaimed President) in 1863. His earliest p ...

, who ruled Peru through the 1800s, believing that his authority helped stabilize Peru. Herrera temporarily resigned from public life in 1853 after the Congress of Peru blocked a

concordat A concordat () is a convention between the Holy See and a sovereign state that defines the relationship between the Catholic Church and the state in matters that concern both,René Metz, ''What is Canon Law?'' (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1960 ...

he drafted for Pope Pius IX. He reappeared in 1860 to become a member and president of Congress, creating a draft of the 1860 Constitution of Peru that supported an undemocratic, elitist agenda that included excluding citizenship for a large percentage of Peruvians, a president chosen through indirect election, a thirty-member senate that was overseen by businessmen who held judicial power and a chamber of deputies who dealt with legislature. After his proposal was rejected, he angrily resigned from office and stayed out of public life. During the time of the

Chincha Islands War The Chincha Islands War, also known as Spanish–South American War (), was a series of coastal and naval battles between Spain and its former colonies of Peru, Chile, Ecuador, and Bolivia from 1865 to 1879. The conflict began with Spain's seiz ...

guano Guano (Spanish from ) is the accumulated excrement of seabirds or bats. Guano is a highly effective fertiliser due to the high content of nitrogen, phosphate, and potassium, all key nutrients essential for plant growth. Guano was also, to a le ...

extraction in Peru led to the rise of an even wealthier aristocracy that established a

plutocracy A plutocracy () or plutarchy is a society that is ruled or controlled by people of great wealth or income. The first known use of the term in English dates from 1631. Unlike most political systems, plutocracy is not rooted in any established ...

. A wealthy oligarchy was then created that used candidate-based political parties to control economic interests; a practice that continues to the present day. This oligarchy was supported by the Catholic Church, which would ignore inequalities in Peru and instead assist governments with appeasing the impoverished majority. The education system in Peru was also created by the authoritarian governments of conservatives to segregate against indigenous Peruvians, instilling the belief of a hierarchal society and training indigenous groups to live their lives as peasants or soldiers. Combatting ideologies of ''

indigenismo () is a political ideology in several Latin American countries which emphasizes the relationship between the nation state and Indigenous nations and Indigenous peoples. In some contemporary uses, it refers to the pursuit of greater social and p ...

'' of the majority and the elite holding

Europhile A Europhile is a person who is fond of, admires, or loves European culture, society, history, food, music etc.

Generation of 1900

The Generation of 1900 () was an influential group of writers, historians and philosophers who created modern Peruvian

nationalism Nationalism is an idea or movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the state. As a movement, it presupposes the existence and tends to promote the interests of a particular nation, Smith, Anthony. ''Nationalism: Theory, I ...

, with the group originating from Peruvian intellectual circles during the years after the

War of the Pacific The War of the Pacific (), also known by War of the Pacific#Etymology, multiple other names, was a war between Chile and a Treaty of Defensive Alliance (Bolivia–Peru), Bolivian–Peruvian alliance from 1879 to 1884. Fought over Atacama Desert ...

, the Civil War of 1884 and the National Reconstruction, near the beginning of the 20th century. These intellectuals were heavily inspired in

French French may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France ** French people, a nation and ethnic group ** French cuisine, cooking traditions and practices Arts and media * The French (band), ...

and Spanish nationalist movements that emerged after their countries' defeat in Sedan and in

Cavite Cavite, officially the Province of Cavite (; Chavacano: ''Provincia de Cavite''), is a Provinces of the Philippines, province of the Philippines located in the Calabarzon region. On the southern shores of Manila Bay and southwest of Manila, i ...

, respectively. The writings of

Manuel González Prada Jose Manuel de los Reyes González de Prada y Ulloa (Lima, 5 January 1844 – Lima, 22 July 1918) was a Peruvian politician and anarchist, literary critic and director of the National Library of Peru. The first writer to criticize the oli ...

provided much of the inspiration for nationalist reform in Peru following the War of the Pacific, though he would embrace

anarchism Anarchism is a political philosophy and Political movement, movement that seeks to abolish all institutions that perpetuate authority, coercion, or Social hierarchy, hierarchy, primarily targeting the state (polity), state and capitalism. A ...

instead of liberalism, believing the latter prevented the necessary reform for Peru. Intellectuals in Peru would seek to create their own nationalist movement, though initially they had complications with deciding its direction since the bases of Peruvian society relied on an authoritarian religious system that accepted

, which had been imposed since Spanish colonial period, resulting with intellectuals avoiding

secularism Secularism is the principle of seeking to conduct human affairs based on naturalistic considerations, uninvolved with religion. It is most commonly thought of as the separation of religion from civil affairs and the state and may be broadened ...

altogether. The group then became limited, fixating on the past while other nations focused on more progressive concerns. Members of the Generation of 1900 were primarily influenced by the aristocratic

Civilista Party The Civilista Party (, PC) was a political party in Peru. History Founded as a countermeasure against the growing power of the military in Peru during the first half of the Republic, the party's sole purpose was to establish a civilian rule in ...

, mainly led by lawyers linked to business interests of England and the United States. The group had little contact outside of the elite, not making any connections with the

indigenous peoples of Peru The Indigenous peoples of Peru or Indigenous Peruvians comprise a large number of ethnic groups who inhabit territory in present-day Peru. Indigenous cultures developed here for thousands of years before the arrival of the Spanish in 1532. In 2 ...

and saw the United States as an example for Peru; the group believed

capitalism Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their use for the purpose of obtaining profit. This socioeconomic system has developed historically through several stages and is defined by ...

and a

free market economy A market economy is an economic system in which the decisions regarding investment, production, and distribution to the consumers are guided by the price signals created by the forces of supply and demand. The major characteristic of a market ...

was necessary in Peru. The three main figures of the Generation of 1900 were

Francisco García Calderón Rey Francisco García Calderón Rey (April 8, 1883 in Valparaíso, Chile – July 1, 1953 in Lima, Peru) was a Peruvian writer. He was son of Francisco García Calderón, President of Peru. Life Calderón was born into a wealthy and politically ...

José de la Riva-Agüero y Osma José de la Riva-Agüero y Osma, 6th Marquess of Montealegre de Aulestia and 5th of Casa-Dávila (26 February 1885 – 25 October 1944) was a Peruvian lawyer, historian, writer, essayist and politician who served as Prime Minister of Peru, Mini ...

, and

Víctor Andrés Belaúnde Víctor Andrés Belaúnde Diez Canseco (15 December 1883 – 14 December 1966) was a Peruvian diplomat, politician, philosopher and scholar. He chaired the 14th Session and the 4th Emergency Special Session of the President of the United Nations ...

. The movement was primarily led by Riva-Agüero, who was described as "the magistrate of Peruvian culture" by historian

Raúl Porras Barrenechea Raúl Porras Barrenechea (23 March 1897 – 27 September 1960) was a Peruvian diplomat, historian and politician. He was President of the Senate in 1957 and Minister of Foreign Affairs between 1958 and 1960. A well-known figure of the student m ...

, with his adoption of

fascism Fascism ( ) is a far-right, authoritarian, and ultranationalist political ideology and movement. It is characterized by a dictatorial leader, centralized autocracy, militarism, forcible suppression of opposition, belief in a natural social hie ...

occurring following the collapse of the Aristocratic Republic in 1919 and the growing activism of the middle class during the presidency of

Augusto B. Leguía Augusto Bernardino Leguía y Salcedo (19 February 1863 – 6 February 1932) was a Peruvian politician who served as President of Peru from 1908 to 1912 and from 1919 to 1930, the latter term known as the " Oncenio" after its eleven-year length. ...

. According to historian Fernán Altuve, this generation of intellectuals, who would put an end to the

liberal Liberal or liberalism may refer to: Politics * Generally, a supporter of the political philosophy liberalism. Liberals may be politically left or right but tend to be centrist. * An adherent of a Liberal Party (See also Liberal parties by country ...

- positivist consensus on the interpretation of Peruvian political thought in Peru, were the first generation to give importance to conservative thinking in Peruvian history, rescuing important conservative figures like Bartolomé Herrera or Blas Ostoloza.

Odría and Belaúnde era

Through the early twentieth century, the

Peruvian Armed Forces The Peruvian Armed Forces () are the military services of Peru, comprising independent Army, Navy and Air Force components. Their primary mission is to safeguard the country's independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity against any threat ...

held political power in Peru.

Manuel A. Odría Manuel Arturo Odría Amoretti (26 November 1896 – 18 February 1974) was a military officer who served as the 45th President of Peru. He ousted President José Luis Bustamante y Rivero in the 1948 Peruvian coup d'état and seized power. He pr ...

led a coup against

José Luis Bustamante y Rivero José Luis Bustamante y Rivero (January 15, 1894 – January 11, 1989) was a lawyer, writer, politician, and diplomat who served as the 44th President of Peru from 1945 to 1948. He was ousted from office in the 1948 Peruvian coup d'état. Presid ...

in 1948, leading a far-right government until 1956.Neira, p. 444 His regime would adopt a

populist Populism is a contested concept used to refer to a variety of political stances that emphasize the idea of the " common people" and often position this group in opposition to a perceived elite. It is frequently associated with anti-establis ...

, nationalist and

pragmatic Pragmatism is a philosophical movement. Pragmatism or pragmatic may also refer to: * "Pragmaticism", Charles Sanders Peirce's post-1905 branch of philosophy * Pragmatics, a subfield of linguistics and semiotics * ''Pragmatics'' (journal), an aca ...

character. In the same year,

Fernando Belaúnde Fernando Sergio Marcelo Marcos Belaúnde Terry (October 7, 1912 – June 4, 2002) was a Peruvian politician who twice served as President of Peru (1963–1968 and 1980–1985). Deposed by a military coup in 1968, he was re-elected in 1980 after ...

founded the center-right Acción Popular party. He would later become president in 1963 and held a doctrine called "''The Conquest of Peru by Peruvians''", which promoted the exploitation of resources in the

Amazon rainforest The Amazon rainforest, also called the Amazon jungle or Amazonia, is a Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests, moist broadleaf tropical rainforest in the Amazon biome that covers most of the Amazon basin of South America. This basin ...

and other outlying areas of Peru through

conquest Conquest involves the annexation or control of another entity's territory through war or Coercion (international relations), coercion. Historically, conquests occurred frequently in the international system, and there were limited normative or ...

, stating "only by turning our vision to the interior, and conquering our wilderness as the United States once did, will South America finally achieve true development". In 1964 in an incident called the , the Belaúnde administration targeted the

Matsés The Matsés or Mayoruna are an indigenous people of the Peruvian and Brazilian Amazon. Their traditional homelands are located between the Javari and Galvez rivers. The Matsés have long guarded their lands from other indigenous tribes and stru ...

after two loggers were killed, with the Peruvian armed forces and American fighter planes dropping

napalm Napalm is an incendiary mixture of a gelling agent and a volatile petrochemical (usually gasoline or diesel fuel). The name is a portmanteau of two of the constituents of the original thickening and gelling agents: coprecipitated aluminium ...

on the indigenous groups armed with bows and arrows, killing hundreds. Belaúnde was removed from office by a military coup led by general

in 1968.

Post-Velasco era

Following the ''

Tacnazo The Tacnazo was a military coup launched by then Peruvian Prime Minister, General Francisco Morales Bermúdez against the administration of President Gen. Juan Velasco Alvarado in 1975. This led to what is known in Peru as the " Second Phase" of ...

'' and subsequent overthrow of Velasco in 1975,

Francisco Morales Bermúdez Francisco Remigio Morales Bermúdez Cerruti (4 October 1921 – 14 July 2022) was a Peruvian politician and general who was the ''de facto'' President of Peru (2nd President of the Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces) between 1975 an ...

would lead the Revolutionary Government until 1980, with his military government participating in the political repression of leftists during

Operation Condor Operation Condor (; ) was a campaign of political repression by the right-wing dictatorships of the Southern Cone of South America, involving intelligence operations, coups, and assassinations of left-wing sympathizers in South America which fo ...

. During the

Lost Decade Lost Decade may refer to: * Lost Decade (Peru), the economic, political and social crisis that took place in Peru in the 1980s * Lost Decades, an economic crisis in Japan that began in the 1990s * ''The Lost Decade'', a television series broadcast ...

of the 1980s and internal conflict, political parties became weaker once again. Belaúnde was re-elected in 1980 and became even more conservative, bringing

neoliberal Neoliberalism is a political and economic ideology that advocates for free-market capitalism, which became dominant in policy-making from the late 20th century onward. The term has multiple, competing definitions, and is most often used pej ...

reforms to Peru that were unsuccessful due to low commodity prices. Angered with

social-democrat Social democracy is a social, economic, and political philosophy within socialism that supports political and economic democracy and a gradualist, reformist, and democratic approach toward achieving social equality. In modern practice, socia ...

President

Alan García Alan Gabriel Ludwig García Pérez (; 23 May 1949 – 17 April 2019) was a Peruvian politician who served as President of Peru for two non-consecutive terms from 1985 to 1990 and from 2006 to 2011. He was the second leader of the American Popula ...

's inability to combat the crises in the nation, the armed forces began planning a coup in the late 1980s known as

Plan Verde ''Plan Verde'' ( Spanish for "Green Plan", ) was a clandestine military operation developed by the armed forces of Peru during the internal conflict in Peru; it involved the control or censorship of media in the nation and the establishment of ...

; it involved the

genocide Genocide is violence that targets individuals because of their membership of a group and aims at the destruction of a people. Raphael Lemkin, who first coined the term, defined genocide as "the destruction of a nation or of an ethnic group" by ...

of impoverished and indigenous Peruvians, the control or censorship of media in the nation and the establishment of a

economy controlled by a

military junta A military junta () is a system of government led by a committee of military leaders. The term ''Junta (governing body), junta'' means "meeting" or "committee" and originated in the Junta (Peninsular War), national and local junta organized by t ...

in Peru. Peruvians shifted their support for authoritarian leader

Alberto Fujimori Alberto Kenji Fujimori Fujimori (26 July 1938 – 11 September 2024) was a Peruvian politician, professor, and engineer who served as the 54th president of Peru from 1990 to 2000.* * * * * * * Born in Lima, Fujimori was the country's fir ...

, who was supported by the military and made a

figurehead In politics, a figurehead is a practice of who ''de jure'' (in name or by law) appears to hold an important and often supremely powerful title or office, yet '' de facto'' (in reality) exercises little to no actual power. This usually means that ...

leader of Peru following his win in the

1990 Peruvian general election General elections were held in Peru on 8 April 1990, with a second round of the presidential elections on 10 June.Dieter Nohlen (2005) ''Elections in the Americas: A data handbook, Volume II'', p454 This exercise was to elect the President of t ...

. * * * *

21st century

Former

social democrat Social democracy is a Social philosophy, social, Economic ideology, economic, and political philosophy within socialism that supports Democracy, political and economic democracy and a gradualist, reformist, and democratic approach toward achi ...

grew more conservative during his second tenure and took implementation of the Lima Consensus even further, adopting policies similar to

Augusto Pinochet Augusto José Ramón Pinochet Ugarte (25 November 1915 – 10 December 2006) was a Chilean military officer and politician who was the dictator of Military dictatorship of Chile, Chile from 1973 to 1990. From 1973 to 1981, he was the leader ...

and combatting with indigenous groups opposed to mining in their communities, events culminating with the

2009 Peruvian political crisis The 2009 Peruvian political crisis resulted from the ongoing opposition to oil development in the Peruvian Amazon by local Indigenous peoples; they protested Petroperú and confronted the National Police. At the forefront of the movement t ...

that saw civilians against an oil development in the

massacred. During the presidencies of

Ollanta Humala Ollanta Moisés Humala Tasso (; born 27 June 1962) is a Peruvian politician and former military officer who served as president of Peru from 2011 to 2016. Originally a socialist and left-wing nationalist, he is considered to have shifted towar ...

Pedro Pablo Kuczynski Pedro Pablo Kuczynski Godard (; born 3 October 1938), also known simply as PPK (), is a Peruvian economist, public administrator, and former politician who served as the 59th President of Peru from 2016 to 2018. He served as Prime Minister of ...

and

Martín Vizcarra Martín Alberto Vizcarra Cornejo (; born 22 March 1963) is a Peruvian engineer and politician who served as President of Peru from 2018 to 2020. Vizcarra Martín Vizcarra's governorship of Moquegua, previously served as List of regional governor ...

, Congress was dominated by the opposition

Popular Force Popular Force (, FP), known as Force 2011 () until 2012, is a Right-wing populism, right-wing populist and Fujimorism, Fujimorist political party in Peru. The party is led by Keiko Fujimori, former congresswoman and daughter of former Presiden ...

, the party created by the daughter of the former Peruvian president Alberto Fujimori,

Keiko Fujimori Keiko Sofía Fujimori Higuchi (, , Hepburn romanization, Hepburn: , ; born 25 May 1975) is a Peruvian politician and business administrator. Fujimori is the eldest daughter of former Peruvian president Alberto Fujimori and Susana Higuchi. From ...

, and opposed many of the actions performed by the presidents. During the government of

, conservative groups in Peru used social media to spread

fake news Fake news or information disorder is false or misleading information (misinformation, disinformation, propaganda, and hoaxes) claiming the aesthetics and legitimacy of news. Fake news often has the aim of damaging the reputation of a person ...

and for the

incitement In criminal law, incitement is the encouragement of another person to commit a crime. Depending on the jurisdiction, some or all types of incitement may be illegal. Where illegal, it is known as an inchoate offense, where harm is intended but ma ...

of violence, especially on

TikTok TikTok, known in mainland China and Hong Kong as Douyin (), is a social media and Short-form content, short-form online video platform owned by Chinese Internet company ByteDance. It hosts user-submitted videos, which may range in duration f ...

Themes

''Hispanismo''

Peruvian conservative philosopher

held that Peru was essentially a

mestizo ( , ; fem. , literally 'mixed person') is a term primarily used to denote people of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry in the former Spanish Empire. In certain regions such as Latin America, it may also refer to people who are culturall ...

and Spanish nation and due to this its people "gravitated" towards what was "Hispanic". Bélaunde, alongside conservative philosopher

, considered the

colonial past Colonial or The Colonial may refer to: * Colonial, of, relating to, or characteristic of a colony or colony (biology) Architecture * American colonial architecture * French colonial architecture * Spanish colonial architecture Automobiles * Col ...

essential for the development of Peruvian history.

Anti-leftism

''Madrid Charter''

The far-right Spanish political party, Vox,* : "To the extent that VOX fits with the concepts and theoretical explanations about radical right-wing parties and authoritarian populists, we would have a prior set of variables and factors that could explain the vote for this party." * * * * * * * * created the ''Madrid Charter'' in 2019 after consulting with the government of United States president

Donald Trump Donald John Trump (born June 14, 1946) is an American politician, media personality, and businessman who is the 47th president of the United States. A member of the Republican Party (United States), Republican Party, he served as the 45 ...

. Peruvian investigative journalism website '' OjoPúblico'' wrote in an article discussing right-wing alliances in the Americas that members of Vox travelled to Peru to obtain signatures, with the parties

Go on Country Go, GO, G.O., or Go! may refer to: Arts and entertainment Games and sport * Go (game), a board game for two players * '' Travel Go'' (formerly ''Go – The International Travel Game''), a game based on world travel * Go, the starting position ...

Hernando de Soto Hernando de Soto (; ; 1497 – 21 May 1542) was a Spanish explorer and conquistador who was involved in expeditions in Nicaragua and the Yucatan Peninsula. He played an important role in Francisco Pizarro's conquest of the Inca Empire in Peru, ...

, and

Popular Renewal Popular Renewal (Spanish language, Spanish: ''Renovación Popular,'' RP) is a Neo-fascism, neo-fascist far-right Peruvian political party. Founded in 2020, the party is the successor of the former National Solidarity (Peru), National Solidarity P ...

Rafael López Aliaga Rafael Bernardo López Aliaga Cazorla (born 11 February 1961) is a Peruvian businessman and politician, who is serving as mayor of Lima since 2023. He is currently the leader of Popular Renewal, the successor to National Solidarity in 2020. ...

signing the document. Peruvian business executives, including the owner of

Willax Televisión Willax Televisión (commonly known as Willax, from Quechua ''willaq'' ‘narrator, informant’) is a Peruvian television channel. It began as an internet channel in 2010 with a television channel launching later that year. History Willax was ...

, also participated in discussions and signed the charter.

''Terruqueo''

In the 1990s, president

used ''terruqueos'' with the help of the National Intelligence Service to discredit those who opposed him, including dissenters from his own government, with political scientist Daniel Encinas saying that this would evolve into conservative politicians using the attack to target those opposed to Fujimori's neoliberal economic policies and that the right-wing used the ''terruqueo'' as a "strategy of manipulating the legacy of political violence" due to the general bad memory that people have of the

reign of terror The Reign of Terror (French: ''La Terreur'', literally "The Terror") was a period of the French Revolution when, following the creation of the French First Republic, First Republic, a series of massacres and Capital punishment in France, nu ...

of the

Shining Path The Shining Path (, SL), self-named the Communist Party of Peru (, abbr. PCP), is a far-left political party and guerrilla group in Peru, following Marxism–Leninism–Maoism and Gonzalo Thought. Academics often refer to the group as the ...

and other groups. Ultimately, a

culture of fear Culture of fear (or climate of fear) is the concept which describes the pervasive feeling of fear in a given group, often due to actions taken by leaders. The term was popularized by Frank Furedi and has been more recently popularized by the A ...

was created by Fujimori according to Jo-Marie Burt, with individuals fearing that they would be described as a terrorist. Using the ''terruqueo'', according to Velásquez Villalba, Fujimori made himself a " permanent hero" and made left-wing ideologies an eternal enemy. Using the ''terruqueo'' to frighten conservative individuals with a

status quo bias A status quo bias or default bias is a cognitive bias which results from a preference for the maintenance of one's existing state of affairs. The current baseline (or status quo) is taken as a reference point, and any change from that baseline is p ...

, leftist and progressive groups, along with human rights groups, have been targeted with the tactic.

Environment

Environmental degradation Environment most often refers to: __NOTOC__ * Natural environment, referring respectively to all living and non-living things occurring naturally and the physical and biological factors along with their chemical interactions that affect an organism ...

occurred in Peru since businesses take advantage of deregulation to attain more growth. The conservative Congress of Peru refused to ratify the

Escazú Agreement The Regional Agreement on Access to Information, Public Participation and Justice in Environmental Matters in Latin America and the Caribbean, better known as the Escazú Agreement (), is an international treaty signed by 24 Latin American and Ca ...

regarding environmental rights, arguing that it would violate the sovereignty of Peru and interfere with the economy.

Neoliberalism

, the founder of one of the first neoliberal organizations in Latin America,

Institute for Liberty and Democracy The Institute for Liberty and Democracy (ILD) is a think tank based in Lima devoted to the promotion of property rights in developing countries. It was established in 1981 by Peruvian economist Hernando de Soto. The ILD works with developing co ...

(ILD), began to receive assistance from

Ronald Reagan Ronald Wilson Reagan (February 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004) was an American politician and actor who served as the 40th president of the United States from 1981 to 1989. He was a member of the Republican Party (United States), Republican Party a ...

's administration, with the

National Endowment for Democracy The National Endowment for Democracy (NED) is a quasi-autonomous non-governmental organization in the United States founded in 1983 with the stated aim of advancing democracy worldwide and counter communism, communist influence abroad, by prom ...

's Center for International Private Enterprise (CIPE) providing his ILD with funding and education for advertising campaigns. Between 1988 and 1995, de Soto and the ILD were mainly responsible for some four hundred initiatives, laws, and regulations that led to significant changes in Peru's

economic system An economic system, or economic order, is a system of production, resource allocation and distribution of goods and services within an economy. It includes the combination of the various institutions, agencies, entities, decision-making proces ...

. The Lima Consensus as established during the Fujimori administration focused on

deregulation Deregulation is the process of removing or reducing state regulations, typically in the economic sphere. It is the repeal of governmental regulation of the economy. It became common in advanced industrial economies in the 1970s and 1980s, as a ...

and

privatization Privatization (rendered privatisation in British English) can mean several different things, most commonly referring to moving something from the public sector into the private sector. It is also sometimes used as a synonym for deregulation w ...

with the goal of establishing a neoliberal economy. As the Fujimori government began to implement their economic policy, his administration attempted to rewrite Peru's economic history, with Minister of the Economy

Carlos Boloña Carlos Boloña Behr (27 July 1950 – 17 October 2018) was a Peruvian economist and politician. He served as the Ministry of Economy and Finance (Peru), Minister of Economy and Finance from 1991 to 1993, and again from July to November 2000 under ...

inaccurately stating "during the three decades that preceded to date, populist, socialist or mercantilist ideas and governments exercised almost absolute predominance in our country". The dismantling of political parties in the 1990s resulted with weaker newcoming politicians into the twenty first century since

technocrats Technocracy is a form of government in which decision-makers appoint knowledge experts in specific domains to provide them with advice and guidance in various areas of their policy-making responsibilities. Technocracy follows largely in the tra ...

that existed in Fujimori's government would go on to promote the Consensus and dominate politics in Peru. As the

Washington Consensus The Washington Consensus is a set of ten economic policy prescriptions considered in the 1980s and 1990s to constitute the "standard" reform package promoted for Economic crisis, crisis-wracked developing country, developing countries by the Was ...

lost popularity in the 2000s, a more defined Lima Consensus began to emerge in Peru simultaneously as the economy improved during the

2000s commodities boom The 2000s commodities boom, commodities super cycle or China boom was the rise of many physical commodity prices (such as those of food, oil, metals, chemicals and fuels) during the early 21st century (2000–2014), following the Great Commoditie ...

. The economic boom Peru experienced did not develop a stronger government however, with deregulation and privatization becoming more established due to the Consensus following the fall of the Fujimori government while elites supporting the Consensus gained veto power in the government. Consensus policies are supported by the economic elite and some of the middle class, with supporters advocating for deregulation, privatization and the removal of

social programs Welfare spending is a type of government support intended to ensure that members of a society can meet basic human needs such as food and shelter. Social security may either be synonymous with welfare, or refer specifically to social insurance pr ...

. This lack of state intervention as promoted by the Consensus has resulted with a weak government with poor performance, with many Peruvians experiencing insufficient basic services such as education, justice and security.

Media

Peru's media organizations control the

public sphere The public sphere () is an area in social relation, social life where individuals can come together to freely discuss and identify societal problems, and through that discussion, Social influence, influence political action. A "Public" is "of or c ...

, with wealthy families controlling much of the media and influencing decisions in the nation to serve their economic interests. The mainstream media in Peru is typically

economically Economics () is a behavioral science that studies the Production (economics), production, distribution (economics), distribution, and Consumption (economics), consumption of goods and services. Economics focuses on the behaviour and interac ...

and

politically conservative Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political philosophy and ideology that seeks to promote and preserve traditional institutions, customs, and values. The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civilizati ...

El Comercio Group El Comercio Group (GEC) is a Peruvian media conglomerate that owns multiple newspapers, television stations and other entities. The largest media conglomerate in Peru and one of the largest in South America, El Comercio Group is owned by the Mir� ...

is the largest media conglomerate in Peru and one of the largest in South America, owning 80% of newspapers, receiving 65% of online readers and generating 57% of revenue among Peru's largest media organizations. Although they initially opposed the Fujimori clan in other instances, especially against

, El Comercio Group has typically supported right-wing political candidates, including President

and

References

Works cited

* * {{Conservatism Conservatism Conservatism in Peru Political history of Peru