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Computer cartography (also called digital

cartography Cartography (; from , 'papyrus, sheet of paper, map'; and , 'write') is the study and practice of making and using maps. Combining science, aesthetics and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality (or an imagined reality) can ...

) is the art, science, and technology of making and using maps with a computer. This technology represents a paradigm shift in how maps are produced, but is still fundamentally a subset of traditional cartography. The primary function of this technology is to produce

map A map is a symbolic depiction of interrelationships, commonly spatial, between things within a space. A map may be annotated with text and graphics. Like any graphic, a map may be fixed to paper or other durable media, or may be displayed on ...

s, including creation of accurate representations of a particular area such as, detailing major road arteries and other points of interest for navigation, and in the creation of

thematic map A thematic map is a type of map that portrays the geographic pattern of a particular subject matter (theme) in a geographic area. This usually involves the use of map symbols to Geovisualization, visualize selected properties of geographic fe ...

s. Computer cartography is one of the main functions of

geographic information systems A geographic information system (GIS) consists of integrated computer hardware and software that store, manage, analyze, edit, output, and visualize geographic data. Much of this often happens within a spatial database; however, this is not ...

(GIS), however, GIS is not necessary to facilitate computer cartography and has functions beyond just making maps. The first peer-reviewed publications on using computers to help in the cartographic process predate the introduction of full GIS by several years. Computer cartography is employed to facilitate a variety of computer applications, often through integration with the

Global Positioning System The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based hyperbolic navigation system owned by the United States Space Force and operated by Mission Delta 31. It is one of the global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) that provide ge ...

(GPS) satellite network. This can allow real-time automated map generation for tasks such as

automotive navigation system An automotive navigation system is part of the automobile controls or a third party add-on used to find direction in an automobile. It typically uses a satellite navigation device to get its position data which is then correlated to a position on ...

History

From paper to paperless

In the 1959,

Waldo Tobler Waldo Rudolph Tobler (November 16, 1930 – February 20, 2018) was an United States, American-Switzerland, Swiss geographer and cartographer. Tobler is regarded as one of the most influential geographers and cartographers of the late 20th centur ...

published a paper titled "Automation and Cartography" that established the first use case for computers as aids in cartography. In this paper, Tobler established what he referred to as a "map in–map out" (MIMO) system, which facilitated digitization of traditional maps, changing them, and reproducing them. The MIMO system, while simple, established the use of computers for map making in the literature and set the stage for more advanced

in later years by geographers such as Roger Tomlinson. The rapid acceleration that followed lead to a rapid paradigm shift in cartography, where traditional cartography was replaced by computer-aided cartography. This was predicted in 1985, when

Mark Monmonier Mark Stephen Monmonier (born February 2, 1943) is a Distinguished Professor of Geography and the Environment at the Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs of Syracuse University. He specializes in geography, geographic information syst ...

speculated in his book '' Technological Transition in Cartography'' that computer cartography facilitated by GIS would largely replace traditional pen and paper cartography. It is believed that the milestone of more maps created and distributed with computers was achieved sometime in the mid-1990s.

Expanded capabilities

Early digital maps had the same basic functionality as paper maps—that is, they provided a "virtual view" of roads generally outlined by the terrain encompassing the surrounding area. However, as digital maps have grown with the expansion of GPS technology in the past decade, live traffic updates,"Navigation device assisting road traffic congestion management." FreshPatents.com. 9 March 2007. http://www.freshpatents.com/Navigation-device-assisting-road-traffic-congestion-management-dt20080925ptan20080234921.php . 12 Oct. 2008. points of interest and service locations have been added to enhance digital maps to be more "user conscious".Husby, Jonathon. "In-car navigation matures beyond ‘Point A to Point B’." Electronic Engineering Times. 28 Jan. 2008. http://www.automotivedesignline.com . 12 Oct. 2008. Traditional "virtual views" are now only part of digital mapping. In many cases, users can choose between virtual maps, satellite (aerial views), and hybrid (a combination of virtual map and aerial views) views. With the ability to update and expand digital mapping devices, newly constructed roads and places can be added to appear on maps. Three-dimensional maps of landscapes can be generated using

3D scanner 3D scanning is the process of analyzing a real-world object or environment to collect three dimensional data of its shape and possibly its appearance (e.g. color). The collected data can then be used to construct digital 3D models. A 3D scanner ...

s or

3D reconstruction In computer vision and computer graphics, 3D reconstruction is the process of capturing the shape and appearance of real objects. This process can be accomplished either by active or passive methods. If the model is allowed to change its shape i ...

software.Remondino, Fabio.
Heritage recording and 3D modeling with photogrammetry and 3D scanning
." Remote Sensing 3.6 (2011): 1104-1138.

Data collection

Digital maps heavily rely upon a vast amount of data collected over time. Most of the information that comprise digital maps is the culmination of

satellite imagery Satellite images (also Earth observation imagery, spaceborne photography, or simply satellite photo) are images of Earth collected by imaging satellites operated by governments and businesses around the world. Satellite imaging companies sell im ...

as well as street level information. Maps must be updated frequently to provide users with the most accurate reflection of a location. While there is a wide spectrum on companies that specialize in digital mapping, the basic premise is that digital maps will accurately portray roads as they actually appear to give "life-like experiences"."City Maps" Tele Atlas BV. 2008. http://www.teleatlas.com/OurProducts/MapEnhancementProducts/CityMaps/index.htm . 12 Oct. 2008.

Functionality and use

Computer applications

Proprietary and non-proprietary computer programs and applications provide imagery and street-level map data for much of the world.

Scientific applications

The development of mobile computing ( PDAs, tablet PCs,

laptops A laptop computer or notebook computer, also known as a laptop or notebook, is a small, portable personal computer (PC). Laptops typically have a clamshell form factor with a flat-panel screen on the inside of the upper lid and an alpha ...

, etc.) has recently (since about 2000) spurred the use of digital mapping in the sciences and

applied science Applied science is the application of the scientific method and scientific knowledge to attain practical goals. It includes a broad range of disciplines, such as engineering and medicine. Applied science is often contrasted with basic science, ...

s. , science fields that use digital mapping technology include

geology Geology (). is a branch of natural science concerned with the Earth and other astronomical objects, the rocks of which they are composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Modern geology significantly overlaps all other Earth ...

(see Digital geological mapping),

engineering Engineering is the practice of using natural science, mathematics, and the engineering design process to Problem solving#Engineering, solve problems within technology, increase efficiency and productivity, and improve Systems engineering, s ...

architecture Architecture is the art and technique of designing and building, as distinguished from the skills associated with construction. It is both the process and the product of sketching, conceiving, planning, designing, and construction, constructi ...

land surveying Surveying or land surveying is the technique, profession, art, and science of determining the land, terrestrial Plane (mathematics), two-dimensional or Three-dimensional space#In Euclidean geometry, three-dimensional positions of Point (geom ...

mining Mining is the Resource extraction, extraction of valuable geological materials and minerals from the surface of the Earth. Mining is required to obtain most materials that cannot be grown through agriculture, agricultural processes, or feasib ...

forestry Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, planting, using, conserving and repairing forests and woodlands for associated resources for human and Natural environment, environmental benefits. Forestry is practiced in plantations and ...

, environmental, and

archaeology Archaeology or archeology is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of Artifact (archaeology), artifacts, architecture, biofact (archaeology), biofacts or ecofacts, ...

GPS navigation systems

The principal use by which digital mapping has grown in the past decade has been its connection to

(GPS) technology."United States Updates Global Positioning System Technology." America.gov. 3 Feb. 2006. http://www.america.gov/st/washfile-english/2006/February/20060203125928lcnirellep0.5061609.html . 12 Oct. 2008. GPS is the foundation behind digital mapping navigation systems.

How it works

The coordinates and position as well as atomic time obtained by a terrestrial GPS receiver from GPS satellites

orbiting In celestial mechanics, an orbit (also known as orbital revolution) is the curved trajectory of an object such as the trajectory of a planet around a star, or of a natural satellite around a planet, or of an artificial satellite around an obje ...

Earth Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to Planetary habitability, harbor life. This is enabled by Earth being an ocean world, the only one in the Solar System sustaining liquid surface water. Almost all ...

interact together to provide the digital mapping programming with points of origin in addition to the destination points needed to calculate distance. This information is then analyzed and compiled to create a map that provides the easiest and most efficient way to reach a destination. :More technically speaking, the device operates in the following manner:"How Does GPS Work?" Smithsonian Institution. 1998. http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/gps/work.html . 12 Oct. 2008. # GPS receivers collect data from at least four GPS satellites orbiting the Earth, calculating position in

three dimensions In geometry, a three-dimensional space (3D space, 3-space or, rarely, tri-dimensional space) is a mathematical space in which three values (''coordinates'') are required to determine the position of a point. Most commonly, it is the three-di ...

. # The GPS receiver then utilizes position to provide

GPS coordinates The World Geodetic System (WGS) is a standard used in cartography, geodesy, and satellite navigation including GPS. The current version, WGS 84, defines an Earth-centered, Earth-fixed coordinate system and a geodetic datum, and also descri ...

, or exact points of latitudinal and longitudinal direction from GPS satellites. # The points, or coordinates, output an accurate range between approximately "10-20 meters" of the actual location. # The beginning point, entered via GPS coordinates, and the ending point, (address or coordinates) input by the user, are then entered into the digital mapping software. # The mapping software outputs a real-time visual representation of the route. The map then moves along the path of the driver. # If the driver drifts from the designated route, the navigation system will use the current coordinates to recalculate a route to the destination location.

References

{{Geodesy navbox Digital mapping Geodesy