An academic degree is a qualification awarded to a student upon successful completion of a course of study in

higher education Tertiary education (higher education, or post-secondary education) is the educational level following the completion of secondary education. The World Bank defines tertiary education as including universities, colleges, and vocational schools ...

, usually at a

college A college (Latin: ''collegium'') may be a tertiary educational institution (sometimes awarding degrees), part of a collegiate university, an institution offering vocational education, a further education institution, or a secondary sc ...

university A university () is an educational institution, institution of tertiary education and research which awards academic degrees in several Discipline (academia), academic disciplines. ''University'' is derived from the Latin phrase , which roughly ...

. These institutions often offer degrees at various levels, usually divided into

undergraduate Undergraduate education is education conducted after secondary education and before postgraduate education, usually in a college or university. It typically includes all postsecondary programs up to the level of a bachelor's degree. For example, ...

and

postgraduate Postgraduate education, graduate education, or graduate school consists of academic or professional degrees, certificates, diplomas, or other qualifications usually pursued by post-secondary students who have earned an undergraduate (bachelor' ...

degrees. The most common undergraduate degree is the

bachelor's degree A bachelor's degree (from Medieval Latin ''baccalaureus'') or baccalaureate (from Modern Latin ''baccalaureatus'') is an undergraduate degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to six years ...

, although some educational systems offer lower-level undergraduate degrees such as associate and foundation degrees. Common postgraduate degrees include

engineer's degree An engineer's degree is an advanced academic degree in engineering which is conferred in Europe, some countries of Asia and Latin America, North Africa and a few institutions in the United States. The degree may require a thesis but always require ...

master's degree A master's degree (from Latin ) is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities or colleges upon completion of a course of study demonstrating mastery or a high-order overview of a specific field of study or area of professional prac ...

s and

doctorate A doctorate (from Latin ''doctor'', meaning "teacher") or doctoral degree is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities and some other educational institutions, derived from the ancient formalism '' licentia docendi'' ("licence to teach ...

s. In the UK and countries whose educational systems are based on the British system,

honours degree Honours degree has various meanings in the context of different degrees and education systems. Most commonly it refers to a variant of the undergraduate bachelor's degree containing a larger volume of material or a higher standard of study, ...

s are divided into classes: first, second (broken into upper second, or 2.1, and lower second, or 2.2) and third class.

History

Meeting of doctors at the university of Paris

Emergence of the doctor's and master's degrees and the licentiate

The doctorate (

Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...

: ''doceo'', "I teach") first appeared in

medieval Europe In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of World history (field), global history. It began with the fall of the West ...

as a license to teach (

: ''licentia docendi'') at a medieval university. Its roots can be traced to the

early church Early Christianity, otherwise called the Early Church or Paleo-Christianity, describes the historical era of the Christian religion up to the First Council of Nicaea in 325. Christianity spread from the Levant, across the Roman Empire, and bey ...

when the term "doctor" referred to the Apostles,

Church Fathers The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, Christian Fathers, or Fathers of the Church were ancient and influential Christian theologians and writers who established the intellectual and doctrinal foundations of Christianity. The historical peri ...

and other

Christian A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a Monotheism, monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the wo ...

authorities who taught and interpreted the

Bible The Bible is a collection of religious texts that are central to Christianity and Judaism, and esteemed in other Abrahamic religions such as Islam. The Bible is an anthology (a compilation of texts of a variety of forms) originally writt ...

. The right to grant a ''licentia docendi'' was originally reserved by the

church Church may refer to: Religion * Church (building), a place/building for Christian religious activities and praying * Church (congregation), a local congregation of a Christian denomination * Church service, a formalized period of Christian comm ...

which required the applicant to pass a test, take an oath of allegiance, and pay a fee. The

Third Council of the Lateran The Third Council of the Lateran met in Rome in March 1179. Pope Alexander III presided and 302 bishops attended. The Catholic Church regards it as the eleventh ecumenical council. By agreement reached at the Peace of Venice in 1177 the bitt ...

of 1179 guaranteed the access – now largely free of charge – of all able applicants, who were, however, still tested for aptitude by the ecclesiastic scholastic. This right remained a point of contention between the church authorities and the slowly emancipating universities, but was granted by the

Pope The pope is the bishop of Rome and the Head of the Church#Catholic Church, visible head of the worldwide Catholic Church. He is also known as the supreme pontiff, Roman pontiff, or sovereign pontiff. From the 8th century until 1870, the po ...

to the

University of Paris The University of Paris (), known Metonymy, metonymically as the Sorbonne (), was the leading university in Paris, France, from 1150 to 1970, except for 1793–1806 during the French Revolution. Emerging around 1150 as a corporation associated wit ...

in 1231 where it became a universal license to teach (''licentia ubique docendi''). While the ''licentia'' continued to hold a higher prestige than the bachelor's degree (''Baccalaureus''), it was ultimately reduced to an intermediate step to the Magister and

, both of which now became the exclusive qualification for teaching. In universities, doctoral training was a form of

apprenticeship Apprenticeship is a system for training a potential new practitioners of a trade or profession with on-the-job training and often some accompanying study. Apprenticeships may also enable practitioners to gain a license to practice in a regulat ...

to a

guild A guild ( ) is an association of artisans and merchants who oversee the practice of their craft/trade in a particular territory. The earliest types of guild formed as organizations of tradespeople belonging to a professional association. They so ...

. The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Master of Arts" was seven years. This was the same as the term of apprenticeship for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the

. Today the terms "master" (from the

''magister'', ), "Doctor", and "Professor" signify different levels of academic achievement, but in the

Medieval university A medieval university was a corporation organized during the Middle Ages for the purposes of higher education. The first Western European institutions generally considered to be universities were established in present-day Italy, including the K ...

, they were equivalent terms. The use of them in the degree name was a matter of custom at a university. Most universities conferred the Master of Arts, although the highest degree was often termed Master of Theology/Divinity or Doctor of Theology/Divinity, depending on the place. The earliest

doctoral degrees A doctorate (from Latin ''doctor'', meaning "teacher") or doctoral degree is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities and some other educational institutions, derived from the ancient formalism '' licentia docendi'' ("licence to teach ...

(

theology Theology is the study of religious belief from a Religion, religious perspective, with a focus on the nature of divinity. It is taught as an Discipline (academia), academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itse ...

– ''Divinitatis'' Doctor (D.D.),

law Law is a set of rules that are created and are enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior, with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been variously described as a science and as the ar ...

– ''Legum'' Doctor (LL.D., later D.C.L.) and

medicine Medicine is the science and Praxis (process), practice of caring for patients, managing the Medical diagnosis, diagnosis, prognosis, Preventive medicine, prevention, therapy, treatment, Palliative care, palliation of their injury or disease, ...

– ''Medicinæ'' Doctor (M.D., D.M.)) reflected the historical separation of all higher university study into these three fields. Over time, the D.D. has gradually become less common outside theology and is now mostly used for honorary degrees, with the title "Doctor of Theology" being used more often for earned degrees. Studies outside

, and

were then called "

philosophy Philosophy ('love of wisdom' in Ancient Greek) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, Value (ethics and social sciences), value, mind, and language. It is a rational an ...

", due to the Renaissance conviction that real knowledge could be derived from empirical observation. The degree title of

Doctor of Philosophy A Doctor of Philosophy (PhD, DPhil; or ) is a terminal degree that usually denotes the highest level of academic achievement in a given discipline and is awarded following a course of Postgraduate education, graduate study and original resear ...

is a much later creation and was not introduced in England before 1900. Studies in what once was called philosophy are now classified as

science Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into twoor threemajor branches: the natural sciences, which stu ...

s and

humanities Humanities are academic disciplines that study aspects of human society and culture, including Philosophy, certain fundamental questions asked by humans. During the Renaissance, the term "humanities" referred to the study of classical literature a ...

George Makdisi George Abraham Makdisi was born in Detroit, Michigan, on May 15, 1920. He died in Media, Pennsylvania, on September 6, 2002. He was a professor of oriental studies. He studied first in the United States, and later in Lebanon. He then graduated in ...

theorizes that the ''

ijazah An ''ijazah'' (, "permission", "authorization", "license"; plural: ''ijazahs'' or ''ijazat'') is a license authorizing its holder to transmit a certain text or subject, which is issued by someone already possessing such authority. It is particul ...

'' issued in medieval Islamic

madrasa Madrasa (, also , ; Arabic: مدرسة , ), sometimes Romanization of Arabic, romanized as madrasah or madrassa, is the Arabic word for any Educational institution, type of educational institution, secular or religious (of any religion), whet ...

s in the 9th century was the origin of the doctorate that later appeared in medieval European universities.

Alfred Guillaume Alfred Guillaume (8 November 1888 – 30 November 1965) was a British Christian Arabist, scholar of the Hebrew Bible / Old Testament and Islam. Career Guillaume was born in Edmonton, Middlesex, the son of Alfred Guillaume. He took up Arabi ...

Syed Farid al-Attas Syed Farid Alatas ( ) is a Malaysian author and educator, serving as a professor in the Department of Sociology at the National University of Singapore. and Devin J. Stewart agree that there is a resemblance between the ''ijazah'' and the university degree. However,

Toby Huff Toby E. Huff (born April 24, 1942) is an American academic and emeritus professor at the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth. He was born in Portland, Maine. He was trained as a sociologist but has research interests in the history, philosophy ...

and others reject Makdisi's theory. Devin J. Stewart finds that the ''ijazat al-ifta'', license to teach

Islamic law Sharia, Sharī'ah, Shari'a, or Shariah () is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition based on scriptures of Islam, particularly the Qur'an and hadith. In Islamic terminology ''sharīʿah'' refers to immutable, intan ...

and issue legal opinions, is most similar to the medieval European university degree in that it permits entry into certain professions. A key difference was that the granting authority of the ''ijaza'' was an individual professor whereas the university degree was granted by a corporate entity. The

University of Bologna The University of Bologna (, abbreviated Unibo) is a Public university, public research university in Bologna, Italy. Teaching began around 1088, with the university becoming organised as guilds of students () by the late 12th century. It is the ...

Italy Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe, Western Europe. It consists of Italian Peninsula, a peninsula that extends into the Mediterranean Sea, with the Alps on its northern land b ...

, regarded as the oldest university in

Europe Europe is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east ...

, was the first institution to confer the degree of

Doctor Doctor, Doctors, The Doctor or The Doctors may refer to: Titles and occupations * Physician, a medical practitioner * Doctor (title), an academic title for the holder of a doctoral-level degree ** Doctorate ** List of doctoral degrees awarded b ...

in Civil Law in the late 12th century; it also conferred similar degrees in other subjects, including

. The

used the term "master" for its graduates, a practice adopted by the English universities of

Oxford Oxford () is a City status in the United Kingdom, cathedral city and non-metropolitan district in Oxfordshire, England, of which it is the county town. The city is home to the University of Oxford, the List of oldest universities in continuou ...

and

Cambridge Cambridge ( ) is a List of cities in the United Kingdom, city and non-metropolitan district in the county of Cambridgeshire, England. It is the county town of Cambridgeshire and is located on the River Cam, north of London. As of the 2021 Unit ...

, as well as the ancient

Scottish Scottish usually refers to something of, from, or related to Scotland, including: *Scottish Gaelic, a Celtic Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family native to Scotland *Scottish English *Scottish national identity, the Scottish ide ...

universities of

St Andrews St Andrews (; ; , pronounced ʰʲɪʎˈrˠiː.ɪɲ is a town on the east coast of Fife in Scotland, southeast of Dundee and northeast of Edinburgh. St Andrews had a recorded population of 16,800 , making it Fife's fourth-largest settleme ...

Glasgow Glasgow is the Cities of Scotland, most populous city in Scotland, located on the banks of the River Clyde in Strathclyde, west central Scotland. It is the List of cities in the United Kingdom, third-most-populous city in the United Kingdom ...

Aberdeen Aberdeen ( ; ; ) is a port city in North East Scotland, and is the List of towns and cities in Scotland by population, third most populous Cities of Scotland, Scottish city. Historically, Aberdeen was within the historic county of Aberdeensh ...

and

Edinburgh Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 Council areas of Scotland, council areas. The city is located in southeast Scotland and is bounded to the north by the Firth of Forth and to the south by the Pentland Hills. Edinburgh ...

Emergence of the bachelor's degree

In medieval European universities, candidates who had completed three or four years of study in the prescribed texts of the ''

trivium The trivium is the lower division of the seven liberal arts and comprises grammar, logic, and rhetoric. The trivium is implicit in ("On the Marriage of Philology and Mercury") by Martianus Capella, but the term was not used until the Carolin ...

'' (

grammar In linguistics, grammar is the set of rules for how a natural language is structured, as demonstrated by its speakers or writers. Grammar rules may concern the use of clauses, phrases, and words. The term may also refer to the study of such rul ...

rhetoric Rhetoric is the art of persuasion. It is one of the three ancient arts of discourse ( trivium) along with grammar and logic/ dialectic. As an academic discipline within the humanities, rhetoric aims to study the techniques that speakers or w ...

and

logic Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It includes both formal and informal logic. Formal logic is the study of deductively valid inferences or logical truths. It examines how conclusions follow from premises based on the structure o ...

) and the ''

quadrivium From the time of Plato through the Middle Ages, the ''quadrivium'' (plural: quadrivia) was a grouping of four subjects or arts—arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy—that formed a second curricular stage following preparatory work in th ...

'' (

arithmetic Arithmetic is an elementary branch of mathematics that deals with numerical operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. In a wider sense, it also includes exponentiation, extraction of roots, and taking logarithms. ...

geometry Geometry (; ) is a branch of mathematics concerned with properties of space such as the distance, shape, size, and relative position of figures. Geometry is, along with arithmetic, one of the oldest branches of mathematics. A mathematician w ...

astronomy Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and the phenomena that occur in the cosmos. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and their overall evolution. Objects of interest includ ...

and

music Music is the arrangement of sound to create some combination of Musical form, form, harmony, melody, rhythm, or otherwise Musical expression, expressive content. Music is generally agreed to be a cultural universal that is present in all hum ...

), together known as the

Liberal Arts Liberal arts education () is a traditional academic course in Western higher education. ''Liberal arts'' takes the term ''skill, art'' in the sense of a learned skill rather than specifically the fine arts. ''Liberal arts education'' can refe ...

, and who had successfully passed examinations held by their master, would be admitted to the degree of

Bachelor of Arts A Bachelor of Arts (abbreviated B.A., BA, A.B. or AB; from the Latin ', ', or ') is the holder of a bachelor's degree awarded for an undergraduate program in the liberal arts, or, in some cases, other disciplines. A Bachelor of Arts deg ...

. The term "bachelor" comes from the Latin , a term previously used to describe a squire (i.e., apprentice) to a

knight A knight is a person granted an honorary title of a knighthood by a head of state (including the pope) or representative for service to the monarch, the church, or the country, especially in a military capacity. The concept of a knighthood ...

. Further study and, in particular, successful participation in, and moderation of,

disputation Disputation is a genre of literature involving two contenders who seek to establish a resolution to a problem or establish the superiority of something. An example of the latter is in Sumerian disputation poems. In the scholastic system of e ...

s would earn one the

Master of Arts A Master of Arts ( or ''Artium Magister''; abbreviated MA or AM) is the holder of a master's degree awarded by universities in many countries. The degree is usually contrasted with that of Master of Science. Those admitted to the degree have ...

degree, from the

magister, "master" (typically indicating a teacher), entitling one to teach these subjects. Masters of Arts were eligible to enter study under the "higher faculties" of

Law Law is a set of rules that are created and are enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior, with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been variously described as a science and as the ar ...

Medicine Medicine is the science and Praxis (process), practice of caring for patients, managing the Medical diagnosis, diagnosis, prognosis, Preventive medicine, prevention, therapy, treatment, Palliative care, palliation of their injury or disease, ...

Theology Theology is the study of religious belief from a Religion, religious perspective, with a focus on the nature of divinity. It is taught as an Discipline (academia), academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itse ...

and earn first a bachelor's and then master's or doctor's degree in these subjects. Thus, a degree was only a step on the way to becoming a fully qualified master – hence the English word "graduate", which is based on the

("step").

Evolution of the terminology of degrees

The naming of degrees eventually became linked to the subjects studied. Scholars in the faculties of

arts The arts or creative arts are a vast range of human practices involving creativity, creative expression, storytelling, and cultural participation. The arts encompass diverse and plural modes of thought, deeds, and existence in an extensive ...

became known as "masters", but those in

and

were known as "doctors". As a study in the arts or grammar was a necessary prerequisite to study in subjects such as theology, medicine and law, the degree of doctor assumed a higher status than the

. This led to the modern hierarchy in which the

(Ph.D.), which in its present form as a degree based on

research Research is creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge. It involves the collection, organization, and analysis of evidence to increase understanding of a topic, characterized by a particular attentiveness to ...

and dissertation is a development from 18th- and 19th-century German universities, is a more advanced degree than the

(M.A.). The practice of using the term ''doctor'' for PhDs developed within German universities and spread across the academic world. The French terminology is tied closely to the original meanings of the terms. The ''

baccalauréat The ''baccalauréat'' (; ), often known in France colloquially as the ''bac'', is a French national academic qualification that students can obtain at the completion of their secondary education (at the end of the ''lycée'') by meeting certain ...

'' (cf. "bachelor") is conferred upon French students who have completed their

secondary education Secondary education is the education level following primary education and preceding tertiary education. Level 2 or ''lower secondary education'' (less commonly ''junior secondary education'') is considered the second and final phase of basic e ...

and allows the student to attend university. When students graduate from university, they are awarded a ''licence'', much as the

medieval In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of World history (field), global history. It began with the fall of the West ...

teaching guilds would have done, and they are qualified to teach in secondary schools or proceed to higher-level studies.

Spain Spain, or the Kingdom of Spain, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe with territories in North Africa. Featuring the Punta de Tarifa, southernmost point of continental Europe, it is the largest country in Southern Eur ...

had a similar structure: the term ''"Bachiller"'' was used for those who finished the secondary or high-school level education, known as ''"Bachillerato"''. The standard Spanish university 5-year degree was ''"Licenciado"'', (although there were a few 3-year associate degrees called ''"diplomaturas"'', from where the ''"diplomados"'' could move to study a related ''licenciatura''). The highest level was "Doctor".

Degrees awarded by institutions other than universities

In the past, degrees have been directly issued by the authority of the monarch or by a bishop, rather than any educational institution. This practice has mostly died out. In

Great Britain Great Britain is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north-west coast of continental Europe, consisting of the countries England, Scotland, and Wales. With an area of , it is the largest of the British Isles, the List of European ...

Lambeth degree A Lambeth degree is an academic degree conferred by the Archbishop of Canterbury under the authority of the Ecclesiastical Licences Act 1533 as successor of the papal legate in England. The degrees conferred most commonly are DD (Doctor of Div ...

s are still awarded by the

Archbishop of Canterbury The archbishop of Canterbury is the senior bishop and a principal leader of the Church of England, the Primus inter pares, ceremonial head of the worldwide Anglican Communion and the bishop of the diocese of Canterbury. The first archbishop ...

. The Archbishop of Canterbury's right to grant degrees is derived from the Peter's Pence Act 1533, which empowered the Archbishop to grant dispensations previously granted by the Pope. Among educational institutions, St David's College, Lampeter, was granted limited degree awarding powers by

royal charter A royal charter is a formal grant issued by a monarch under royal prerogative as letters patent. Historically, they have been used to promulgate public laws, the most famous example being the English Magna Carta (great charter) of 1215, but ...

in the nineteenth century, despite not being a university. The University College of North Staffordshire was also granted degree awarding powers on its foundation in 1949, despite not becoming a university (as the

University of Keele Keele University is a public research university in Keele, approximately from Newcastle-under-Lyme, Staffordshire, England. Founded in 1949 as the University College of North Staffordshire, it was granted university status by Royal Charter as ...

) until 1962. Following the

Education Reform Act 1988 The Education Reform Act 1988 (c. 40) is legislation that introduced multiple changes to the education system in England and Wales, including the introduction of Key Stages and the National Curriculum. It replaced many rules and structures that h ...

, many educational institutions other than universities have been granted degree-awarding powers, including higher education colleges and colleges of the

University of London The University of London (UoL; abbreviated as Lond or more rarely Londin in Post-nominal letters, post-nominals) is a collegiate university, federal Public university, public research university located in London, England, United Kingdom. The ...

, many of which are now effectively universities in their own right.

Academic dress

In many countries, gaining an academic degree entitles the holder to assume distinctive academic dress particular to the awarding institution, identifying the status of the individual wearing them.

Laws on granting and use of degrees

In many countries, degrees may only be awarded by institutions authorised to do so by the national or regional government. Frequently, governments will also regulate the use of the word ''university'' in the names of businesses. This approach is followed, for example, by Australia, the United Kingdom and Israel. The use of fake degrees by individuals, either obtained from a bogus institution or simply invented, is often covered by

fraud In law, fraud is intent (law), intentional deception to deprive a victim of a legal right or to gain from a victim unlawfully or unfairly. Fraud can violate Civil law (common law), civil law (e.g., a fraud victim may sue the fraud perpetrato ...

laws.

Indicating earned degrees

Depending on the culture and the degree earned, degrees may be indicated by a pre-nominal title,

post-nominal letters Post-nominal letters, also called post-nominal initials, post-nominal titles, designatory letters, or simply post-nominals, are letters placed after a person's name to indicate that the individual holds a position, an academic degree, accreditation ...

, a choice of either, or not indicated at all. In countries influenced by the UK, post-nominal letters are the norm, with only doctorates granting a title, while titles are the norm in many northern European countries. Depending on the culture and the purpose of the listing, only the highest degree, a selection of degrees, or all degrees might be listed. The awarding institution may be shown and it might be specified if a degree was at

honours Honour (Commonwealth English) or honor (American English; see spelling differences) is a quality of a person that is of both social teaching and personal ethos, that manifests itself as a code of conduct, and has various elements such as valo ...

level, particularly where the honours degree is a separate qualification from the ordinary bachelor's degree. For member institutions of the

Association of Commonwealth Universities The Association of Commonwealth Universities (ACU) is a charitable organization that was established in 1913, and has over 400 member institutions in over 40 countries across the Commonwealth of Nations, Commonwealth.Oxford Oxford () is a City status in the United Kingdom, cathedral city and non-metropolitan district in Oxfordshire, England, of which it is the county town. The city is home to the University of Oxford, the List of oldest universities in continuou ...

and

respectively, in spite of these having been superseded by English 'Oxf' and 'Camb' in official university usage, particularly in order to distinguish the

Oxbridge MA In the universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin, Bachelors of Arts (BAs) are promoted to the rank of Master of Arts (MA), typically upon application after three or four years after graduation. No further examination or study is required for ...

from an earned MA. Other Latin abbreviations commonly used include 'Cantuar' for

s (awarded by the

), 'Dunelm' for

Durham University Durham University (legally the University of Durham) is a collegiate university, collegiate public university, public research university in Durham, England, founded by an Act of Parliament (UK), Act of Parliament in 1832 and incorporated by r ...

, 'Ebor' for the

University of York The University of York (abbreviated as or ''York'' for Post-nominal letters, post-nominals) is a public Collegiate university, collegiate research university in York, England. Established in 1963, the university has expanded to more than thir ...

and 'Exon' for the

University of Exeter The University of Exeter is a research university in the West Country of England, with its main campus in Exeter, Devon. Its predecessor institutions, St Luke's College, Exeter School of Science, Exeter School of Art, and the Camborne School of ...

. The

Ancient universities of Scotland The ancient universities of Scotland () are medieval universities, medieval and renaissance universities that continue to exist in the present day. Together, the four universities are the List of oldest universities in continuous operation, ol ...

and the

have abbreviations that are the same in English and Latin. (See for a more complete list and discussion of abbreviations for British universities.) Confusion can result from universities sharing similar names, e.g. the

in the UK and

York University York University (), also known as YorkU or simply YU), is a public university, public research university in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It is Canada's third-largest university, and it has approximately 53,500 students, 7,000 faculty and staff, ...

in Canada or

Newcastle University Newcastle University (legally the University of Newcastle upon Tyne) is a public research university based in Newcastle upon Tyne, England. It has overseas campuses in Singapore and Malaysia. The university is a red brick university and a mem ...

in the UK and the University of Newcastle in Australia. In this case, the convention is to include a country abbreviation with the university's name. For example, 'York (Can.)' and 'York (UK)' or 'Newc (UK)' and 'Newc (Aus.) are commonly used to denote degrees conferred by these universities where the potential for confusion exists, and institution names are given in this form in the Commonwealth Universities Yearbook. Abbreviations used for degrees vary between countries and institutions, e.g. MS indicates

Master of Science A Master of Science (; abbreviated MS, M.S., MSc, M.Sc., SM, S.M., ScM or Sc.M.) is a master's degree. In contrast to the Master of Arts degree, the Master of Science degree is typically granted for studies in sciences, engineering and medici ...

in the US and places following American usage, but

Master of Surgery The Master of Surgery (Latin: Magister Chirurgiae) is an advanced qualification in surgery. Depending upon the degree, it may be abbreviated ChM, MCh, MChir or MS. At a typical medical school the program lasts two to three years. The possessi ...

in the UK and most Commonwealth countries, where the standard abbreviation for Master of Science is MSc. Common abbreviations include BA and MA for Bachelor and

, BS/BSc and MS/MSc for Bachelor and

, MD for

Doctor of Medicine A Doctor of Medicine (abbreviated MD, from the Latin language, Latin ) is a medical degree, the meaning of which varies between different jurisdictions. In the United States, and some other countries, the ''MD'' denotes a professional degree of ph ...

and PhD for

Online degree

An online degree is an academic degree (usually a college degree, but sometimes the term includes high school diplomas and non-degree certificate programs) that can be earned primarily or entirely on a

distance learning Distance education, also known as distance learning, is the education of students who may not always be physically present at school, or where the learner and the teacher are separated in both time and distance; today, it usually involves online ...

basis through the use of an Internet-connected computer, rather than attending college in a traditional campus setting. Improvements in technology, the increasing use of the Internet worldwide, and the need for people to have flexible school schedules that enable them to work while attending school have led to a proliferation of online colleges that award associate's, bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees.

Degree systems by regions

Asia

Bangladesh, India and Pakistan

Bangladesh and India mostly follow the

colonial era Colonial period (a period in a country's history where it was subject to management by a colonial power) may refer to: Continents *European colonization of the Americas * Colonisation of Africa * Western imperialism in Asia Countries * Col ...

British British may refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies. * British national identity, the characteristics of British people and culture ...

system for the classification of degrees, however, Pakistan has recently switched to the US model of a two-year associate degree and a four-year bachelor's degree program. The arts, referring to the performing arts and literature, may confer a Bachelor of Arts (BA) and a Master of Arts (MA). Management degrees are also classified under 'arts' but are nowadays considered a separate stream, with degrees of Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) and Master of Business Administration (MBA). Science refers to the basic sciences and natural science (

Biology Biology is the scientific study of life and living organisms. It is a broad natural science that encompasses a wide range of fields and unifying principles that explain the structure, function, growth, History of life, origin, evolution, and ...

Physics Physics is the scientific study of matter, its Elementary particle, fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior through space and time, and the related entities of energy and force. "Physical science is that department of knowledge whi ...

Chemistry Chemistry is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter. It is a physical science within the natural sciences that studies the chemical elements that make up matter and chemical compound, compounds made of atoms, molecules a ...

, etc.); the corresponding degrees are Bachelor of Science (BSc) and Master of Science (MSc).

Information Technology Information technology (IT) is a set of related fields within information and communications technology (ICT), that encompass computer systems, software, programming languages, data processing, data and information processing, and storage. Inf ...

degrees are conferred specially in the field of

computer science Computer science is the study of computation, information, and automation. Computer science spans Theoretical computer science, theoretical disciplines (such as algorithms, theory of computation, and information theory) to Applied science, ...

, and include Bachelor of Science in Information Technology (B.Sc.IT.) and Master of Science in Information Technology (M.Sc.IT.). The engineering degree in India follows two nomenclatures,

Bachelor of Engineering A Bachelor of Engineering (BEng) or a Bachelor of Science in Engineering (BSE) is an undergraduate academic degree awarded to a college graduate majoring in an engineering discipline at a higher education institution. In the United Kingdom, a Ba ...

(B.Eng.) and

Bachelor of Technology A Bachelor of Technology (BTech) is an undergraduate degree that is awarded for a higher education program in engineering. Countries Australia In Australia, the Bachelor of Technology degree is offered by RMIT University, Edith Cowan Univ ...

(B.Tech.). Both represent bachelor's degree in

engineering Engineering is the practice of using natural science, mathematics, and the engineering design process to Problem solving#Engineering, solve problems within technology, increase efficiency and productivity, and improve Systems engineering, s ...

. In Pakistan, engineering degrees are

(B.E.) and Bachelor of Science in Engineering (B.S./B.Sc. Engineering). Both are the same in

curriculum In education, a curriculum (; : curriculums or curricula ) is the totality of student experiences that occur in an educational process. The term often refers specifically to a planned sequence of instruction, or to a view of the student's experi ...

, duration and pattern, and differ only in nomenclature. The engineering degree in Bangladesh is a Bachelor of Science in Engineering (B.Sc. Engineering). Other degrees include the medical degree ( Bachelor of Medicine & Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS)), dental degree (

Bachelor of Dental Surgery Dentistry, also known as dental medicine and oral medicine, is the branch of medicine focused on the teeth, gums, and mouth. It consists of the study, diagnosis, prevention, management, and treatment of diseases, disorders, and conditions of ...

(BDS)) and computer application degrees (

Bachelor of Computer Application A Bachelor of Science in Information Technology (abbreviated BSIT or B.Sc. IT) is a bachelor's degree awarded for an undergraduate program in information technology. The degree is normally required in order to work in the information techno ...

(BCA)) and Master of Computer Application (MCA).

Indonesia

Indonesia follows a higher education system that originated from the Dutch colonial period. However, over the years, Indonesia has transitioned from the Dutch degree classification system and developed its own academic distinctions by translating and adapting its degree structure. All degrees in Indonesia follow standardized regulations. The duration of each program is specified by Regulation of the Minister of Education and Culture of the Republic of Indonesia Number 3 of 2020 on National Standards of Higher Education. The regulation outlines the maximum duration and minimum credit requirements (Semester Credit Units or SKS) for each level of study without counting academic leave. * Diploma 1 (D1): Usually and fastest 1 academic year, maximum 2 academic years, with a minimum of 36 SKS. * Diploma 2 (D2): Usually 2 academic years, fastest 1.5 years, maximum 3 academic years, with a minimum of 72 SKS. Similar to US Associate degree. * Diploma 3 (D3): Usually 3 academic years, fastest 2.5 years, maximum 5 academic years, with a minimum of 108 SKS. According to the Ministry of Higher Education, Science, and Technology, only a Bachelor (Hons)'s degree is considered equivalent to an Indonesian bachelor's degree (S1). A standard bachelor's degree without an internship, final project, or thesis is recognized as equivalent to an Indonesian senior associate degree (D3) instead. * Bachelor's degree (Sarjana) & Applied bachelor's degree (Sarjana Terapan) usually denoted as Diploma 4 (D4): Usually 4 academic years, fastest 3.5 years, maximum 7 academic years, with a minimum of 144 SKS. * Professional degree (Profesi): Usually 1–2 academic years, fastest 1 year, maximum 3 academic years after completing a bachelor's or applied bachelor's degree, with a minimum of 24 SKS. * Master's degree (Magister), Applied master's degree (Magister Terapan), or Medical Specialist program (Spesialis): Usually 2 academic years, fastest 1.5 years, maximum 4 academic years for non-Medical Specialist after completing a bachelor's or applied bachelor's degree, with a minimum of 36 SKS. * Doctorate (Doktor), Applied Doctorate (Doktor Terapan), or Subspecialist program (Subspesialis): Usually 3–4 academic years, fastest 2 years, maximum 7 academic years for non-Medical Subspecialist after completing a master's, applied master's, or specialist program, with a minimum of 42 SKS. According to the same regulation, one SKS credit consists of the minimum of: * 50 minutes of classroom study, * 60 minutes of assignments, * 60 minutes of independent learning, Totaling 170 minutes per week. Since a semester consists of 14 or 15 weeks of coursework and 1 or 2 weeks of exams, one SKS translates to an average of 40 hours of study per semester. Comparatively, one European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) credit equals 28 hours of study, meaning that one Indonesian SKS is approximately equivalent to 1.5 ECTS. Therefore, a bachelor's degree in Indonesia (minimum 144 SKS) is roughly equivalent to 216 ECTS, which surpasses the standard European requirement of 180 ECTS for a bachelor's degree. All degrees in Indonesia grant academic titles, which are often used in formal and social settings, including on unofficial documents such as marriage invitations. The titles conferred upon graduates are regulated by: * Decree of the Director General of Higher Education, Research, and Technology of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology Number 163/E/Kpt/2022, which governs the naming of programs for academic and professional degrees (bachelor, master, doctorate, professional, and medical specialist and subspecialist degrees). * Decree of the Director General of Vocational Education of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology Number 27/D/M/2022, which regulates the vocational higher education programs, including one-year to three-year associate degrees, four year associate degrees or also known as applied bachelor's degrees, applied master's degrees, and applied doctorate degrees. Indonesian academic degrees are denoted with specific abbreviations that indicate the field of study. The degree structure follows a standardized pattern, where XX represents the specific field of study: * Diploma 1 (D1): Graduates receive the title A.P.XX (Ahli Pratama) or Junior/first Expert * Diploma 2 (D2): Graduates receive the title A.Ma.XX (Ahli Muda) or Junior Expert * Diploma 3 (D3): Graduates are awarded A.Md.XX (Ahli Madya) or Associate Expert * Bachelor's Degree (S1/Sarjana): Denoted as S.XX (e.g., S.T. for Sarjana Teknik (Bachelor in engineering), and S.H. for Sarjana Hukum (Bachelor in Law). * Applied bachelor's degree (D4/Sarjana Terapan): Uses the S.Tr.XX (Sarjana Terapan) designation. * Master's Degree (S2/Magister): Uses M.XX (Magister) to represent the field of study, such as M.T. for Magister Teknik (Master of Engineering) and M.Hum. for Magister Humaniora (Master of Humanities). * Applied master's degree (S2 Terapan/Magister Terapan): Uses M.Tr.XX (Magister Terapan) to represent the field of study, such as M.Tr.T. for Magister Terapan Teknik (Master of Applied Engineering). * Doctorate (S3/Doktor): The title Dr. is used, making it the only current Indonesian academic degree with a pre-nominal title instead of post-nominal letters. * Professional Degrees (Profesi): Various titles are used depending on the profession, such as Ir. (for engineers), Drs. (for social sciences before the 1990s), Ak. (for accountants), Apt. (for pharmacists), Sp.XX for medical specialists, and Subsp.XX for medical subspecialist. Due to the numerous fields of study, there are hundreds of different academic degree abbreviations in Indonesia. By understanding these abbreviations, one can determine the graduate's field of expertise and their educational background.

=Old System

= Before Indonesia adopted its modern degree classification, the country used a system copied from the Dutch colonial academic structure, which in Netherlands remained extant to 2002. In this system, university students typically studied for five years before graduating. This structure was different from the modern four-year bachelor's (S1) degree, as it allowed graduates to proceed directly to a doctorate (S3) program without first obtaining a master's (S2) degree. This system included pre-nominal academic titles that have largely been phased out but are still recognized, for those who graduated before 1992. Some of these titles are still in limited use today. * Ir. (Ingenieur, later Insinyur) – Originally awarded to graduates of engineering, agriculture, environment, and technical fields, equivalent to today's Master of Engineering (M.T.). While the title is still in use today, it now signifies a professional engineer rather than an academic degree. As a result, newer graduates who obtain this title typically hold both Ir. ame M.T. * Drs. (Doctorandus, later Doktorandus) - Awarded to male graduates of natural and social sciences and humanities, equivalent to today's master's degree (S2). * Dra. (Doctoranda, later Doktoranda) - The female equivalent of Drs., awarded in same fields. * Dr. (Doctor, later Doktor) - A title for doctorate holders, which remains in use today as the only Indonesian academic title placed before a name. * Mr. (Shortening of Meester in de Rechten) - A title for law graduates. It was the first academic title to be abolished and the only one required to be converted to another title (S.H. or Bachelor of Law) as it was in Dutch rather than Latin, under Presidential Decree No. 265 of 1962, as part of President Sukarnoá broader efforts to eliminate the Dutch linguistic legacy in Indonesia. Doktorandus (Drs.) and Doktoranda (Dra.) originated from Latin, meaning "one who is to become a doctor." These titles indicated that the degree holder only needed to complete a dissertation to obtain a doctorate. Until the 1960s, diplomas from Bandung Institute of Technology (ITB) explicitly stated that holders were entitled to pursue a doctorate upon defending a thesis. However, during the 1950s–1960s, Indonesia shortened undergraduate programs from 5–5.5 years to 4–4.5 years due to the need to increase the number of graduates, and differences in international education structures, with Indonesia later choosing to align with the Anglo-American education system due to U.S. influence. After the 1970s, for example ITB replaced Doktorandus and Insinyur (Engineer) titles with Sarjana (Bachelor) degrees. However, these titles remained granted and used until 1992 in other universities or institutes. By aligning with Anglo education standards, Indonesia transitioned to the B.Sc. - M.Sc. - Ph.D. model, similar to the Bologna Process. Unlike the previous system, where five-year graduates could proceed directly to a Ph.D., students must now complete an S1 (Bachelor's) and S2 (Master's) before pursuing S3 (Doctorate). Despite this transition, many pre-1992 graduates retained the use of their original titles granted upon their graduation, making formats such as Prof. Dr. Drs. amecommon among senior academics and professionals.

Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, also known historically as Ceylon, is an island country in South Asia. It lies in the Indian Ocean, southwest of the Bay of Bengal, separated from the Indian subcontinent, ...

, like many other commonwealth countries, follows the British system, but with its own distinctions. Degrees are approved by the University Grants Commission.

Africa

Tunisia

Tunisia's educational grading system, ranging from elementary school to Ph.D. programs, operates on a scale of 0 to 20. The minimum score for passing is set at 10 out of 20. This numerical system exclusively evaluates a student's academic accomplishments, serving as the determinant for admission into advanced programs. For instance, a student's grades obtained for their bachelor's degree are considered when they apply for a Master's program. Level 4 courses, which include the first year of a Bachelor's program or a

Higher National Certificate A Higher National Certificate (HNC), part of the Higher Nationals suite of qualifications, is a higher education/ further education qualification in the United Kingdom. Overview In England, Wales and Northern Ireland, the HNC is a BTEC qualifica ...

(HNC), may allow students to enter directly into the second year of a Bachelor's program, provided that the course they completed is the same as the one they are applying for.

South Africa

In South Africa, grades (also known as "marks") are presented as a percentage, with anything below 50% considered a failure. Students who receive a failing grade may have the opportunity to rewrite the exam, depending on the criteria established by their institution. Degrees in almost any field of study can be pursued at one of the institutions in the country, with certain institutions being known for excelling in specific fields. Major fields of study across the country include

Arts The arts or creative arts are a vast range of human practices involving creativity, creative expression, storytelling, and cultural participation. The arts encompass diverse and plural modes of thought, deeds, and existence in an extensive ...

Commerce Commerce is the organized Complex system, system of activities, functions, procedures and institutions that directly or indirectly contribute to the smooth, unhindered large-scale exchange (distribution through Financial transaction, transactiona ...

Engineering Engineering is the practice of using natural science, mathematics, and the engineering design process to Problem solving#Engineering, solve problems within technology, increase efficiency and productivity, and improve Systems engineering, s ...

Science Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into twoor threemajor branches: the natural sciences, which stu ...

, and

. The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) has developed a credit-based system for degrees, with different levels of National Qualifications Framework (NQF) ratings corresponding to each degree level. For example, an undergraduate degree in Science is rated at NQF level 6, while an additional year of study in that discipline would result in an NQF level 8 (honours degree) rating.

Kenya

In Kenya, the first undergraduate degree is pursued after students have completed four years of secondary school education and attained at least a C+ (55–59%) on the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE). Students pursuing a degree in engineering, such as B.Sc.

Mechanical Engineering Mechanical engineering is the study of physical machines and mechanism (engineering), mechanisms that may involve force and movement. It is an engineering branch that combines engineering physics and engineering mathematics, mathematics principl ...

or B.Sc.

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Electrical engineering is an engineering discipline concerned with the study, design, and application of equipment, devices, and systems that use electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism. It emerged as an identifiable occupation in the l ...

, are required to join programs that are accredited by the Engineers Board of Kenya and the Commission for University Education. The B.Sc. degree in engineering typically takes five years to complete. A degree in medicine or surgery may take six to seven years, while a degree in

education Education is the transmission of knowledge and skills and the development of character traits. Formal education occurs within a structured institutional framework, such as public schools, following a curriculum. Non-formal education als ...

or management takes around four years. For students pursuing a master's degree, they must have completed an undergraduate degree and attained at least a second-class honours upper division (60–69%) or lower division plus at least two years of relevant experience. Most master's degree programs take two years to complete. In an engineering master's degree program, students are typically required to publish at least one

scientific paper Scientific literature encompasses a vast body of academic papers that spans various disciplines within the natural and social sciences. It primarily consists of academic papers that present original empirical research and theoretical ...

in a

peer-reviewed journal An academic journal (or scholarly journal or scientific journal) is a periodical publication in which scholarship relating to a particular academic discipline is published. They serve as permanent and transparent forums for the dissemination, scr ...

. To pursue a doctor of philosophy degree, students must have completed a relevant master's degree. They are required to carry out a supervised scientific study for a minimum of three years and publish at least two scientific first-author papers in peer-reviewed journals relevant to their area of study. Currently, Kenya is implementing a Competency Based Curriculum (CBC) that follows a 2–6–3–3 education system to replace the existing 8–4–4 system which allows confirmation of undergraduate degrees upon successful completion. The CBC system was introduced in 2017.

Europe

Since the Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education in the European Region in 1997 and the

Bologna Declaration The Joint Declaration of the European Ministers of Education convened in Bologna on 19 June 1999 is the main guiding document of the Bologna process. It was adopted by ministers of education of 29 European countries at their meeting in Bologna in 1 ...

in 1999, higher education systems in Europe have been undergoing harmonisation through the

Bologna Process file:Bologna-Prozess-Logo.svg, 96px, alt=Logo with stylized stars, Logo file:Bologna zone.svg, alt=Map of Europe, encompassing the entire Bologna zone, 256px, Bologna zone The Bologna Process is a series of ministerial meetings and agreements b ...

, which is based on a three-cycle hierarchy of degrees: ''

Bachelor's A bachelor's degree (from Medieval Latin ''baccalaureus'') or baccalaureate (from Modern Latin ''baccalaureatus'') is an undergraduate degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to six years ( ...

Licence A license (American English) or licence (Commonwealth English) is an official permission or permit to do, use, or own something (as well as the document of that permission or permit). A license is granted by a party (licensor) to another part ...

'' – ''

Master's A master's degree (from Latin ) is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities or colleges upon completion of a course of study demonstrating mastery or a high-order overview of a specific field of study or area of professional prac ...

'' – ''

Doctorate A doctorate (from Latin ''doctor'', meaning "teacher") or doctoral degree is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities and some other educational institutions, derived from the ancient formalism '' licentia docendi'' ("licence to teach ...

''. This system is gradually replacing the two-stage system previously used in some countries and is combined with other elements such as the

European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System The European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) is a standard means for comparing academic credits, i.e., the "volume of learning based on the defined learning outcomes and their associated workload" for higher education across the Eu ...

(ECTS) and the use of

Diploma Supplement The Diploma Supplement is a document accompanying a European higher education diploma, providing a standardised description of the nature, level, context, content and status of the studies completed by its holder. Overview The Diploma Supplement i ...

s to make comparisons between qualifications easier. The European Higher Education Area (EHEA) was formally established in 2010 and, as of September 2016, has 50 members. The implementation of the various elements of the EHEA varies between countries. Twenty-four countries have fully implemented a national qualifications framework, and a further ten have a framework but have not yet certified it against the overarching framework. In 38 countries, ECTS credits are used for all higher education programmes, and 31 countries have fully implemented diploma supplements. Only 11 countries have included all the major points of the

Lisbon Recognition Convention The Lisbon Recognition Convention, officially the Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education in the European Region, is an international convention of the Council of Europe elaborated together with the UNESCO. This ...

in national legislation. Since 2008, the

European Union The European Union (EU) is a supranational union, supranational political union, political and economic union of Member state of the European Union, member states that are Geography of the European Union, located primarily in Europe. The u ...

has been developing the

European Qualifications Framework The European Qualifications Framework (EQF) acts as a translation device to make national qualifications more readable across Europe, promoting workers' and learners' mobility between countries and facilitating their lifelong learning. The EQF ...

(EQF). This is an eight-level framework designed to allow cross-referencing of the various national qualifications frameworks. While it is not specific to

, the top four levels (5–8) correspond to the short cycle, first cycle, second cycle, and third cycle of the EHEA.

Austria

Austria Austria, formally the Republic of Austria, is a landlocked country in Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine Federal states of Austria, states, of which the capital Vienna is the List of largest cities in Aust ...

, there are currently two parallel systems of academic degrees: * the traditional two-cycle system of Magister/

Diplom A ''Diplom'' (, from ) is an academic degree in the German-speaking countries Germany, Austria, and Switzerland and a similarly named degree in some other European countries including Albania, Bulgaria, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia ...

followed by the

, and * the three cycle system of Bachelor,

Master Master, master's or masters may refer to: Ranks or titles In education: *Master (college), head of a college *Master's degree, a postgraduate or sometimes undergraduate degree in the specified discipline *Schoolmaster or master, presiding office ...

and

as defined by the

Bologna process file:Bologna-Prozess-Logo.svg, 96px, alt=Logo with stylized stars, Logo file:Bologna zone.svg, alt=Map of Europe, encompassing the entire Bologna zone, 256px, Bologna zone The Bologna Process is a series of ministerial meetings and agreements b ...

. The two-cycle degree system was phased out by 2010, with a few exceptions. However, some of the established degree naming has been preserved, allowing universities to award the "Diplom-Ingenieur" (and for a while also the "Magister") to graduates of the new-style Master programmes.

Belgium

While higher education is regulated by the three

communities of Belgium Belgium is a federation, federal state comprising three communities and three regions that are based on four language areas. For each of these subdivision types, the subdivisions together make up the entire country; in other words, the types ove ...

, all have common and comparable systems of degrees that were adapted to the Bologna structure during the 2000s. The primary 3-cycle structure is called BMD (Bachelor-Master-Doctorate; or ). In the first cycle, the

Bachelor's degree A bachelor's degree (from Medieval Latin ''baccalaureus'') or baccalaureate (from Modern Latin ''baccalaureatus'') is an undergraduate degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to six years ...

is issued after 180 ECTS (3 years, EQF level 6). Other first cycle degrees include the one-year degree (; ) and the Brevet (in the French-speaking Community only) for short-cycle higher education programmes. Bachelor's degrees are followed in the second cycle ( EQF level 7) by that last two years, completing an extra 120 ECTS credits. The master's degree can be followed by an (; ) that lasts one year (60 ECTS). The third cycle of Belgium's higher education is covered by the degree (; ) that covers a 3-to-7-year-long

PhD A Doctor of Philosophy (PhD, DPhil; or ) is a terminal degree that usually denotes the highest level of academic achievement in a given discipline and is awarded following a course of graduate study and original research. The name of the deg ...

, depending on whether the doctoral student has teaching responsibilities in addition to conducting research or not (typically 6 years for teaching assistants and 4 years for research-only mandates).

Czech Republic

The Czech Republic has implemented the Bologna process, and functionally has three degrees: Bachelor (3 years), Master (2 years after Bachelor) and Doctor (4 years after Master). The Czech Republic also has voluntary academic titles called "small doctorates" (e.g. RNDr. for natural sciences, PhDr. for philosophy, JUDr. for law etc.) which are achieved after passing an additional exam. Medical students do not get bachelor's or master's degrees, but instead attend a six-year program and obligatory exam they achieve the title MUDr. , or MDDr. for dentists and MVDr. for veterinary physicians. They can also get a "big doctorate" ( Ph.D.) after another three or four years of study. Bachelor's degrees, master's degrees and small doctorates in the form of letters (Bc., Mgr., Ing., ...) are listed before the person's name, and Doctor's degrees (Ph.D.) are listed after name (e.g. MUDr. Jan Novák, Ph.D.). The Czech Republic previously had more degrees that were awarded.

Denmark

Before the adoption of the Bologna Process, the lowest degree that would normally be studied at universities in

Denmark Denmark is a Nordic countries, Nordic country in Northern Europe. It is the metropole and most populous constituent of the Kingdom of Denmark,, . also known as the Danish Realm, a constitutionally unitary state that includes the Autonomous a ...

was equivalent to a master's degree (''kandidatgrad''). Officially, a bachelor's degree was always obtained after 3 years' university studies. Various medium-length (2–4 years) professional degrees have been adopted, so they now have status as professional bachelor's degrees of varying length. As opposed to academic bachelor's degrees, they are considered to be "applied" degrees. A professional bachelor's degree is 180, 210, or 240 ECTS-points. The academic degrees available at universities are: * ''bachelor i '' (bachelor's degree = 180 ECTS-points) * ''cand. '' (master's degree = 120 ECTS-points, except Medicine, which is 180 ECTS-points and Veterinary Medicine, which is 150 ECTS-points) * ''ph.d.'' (PhD degree = normally 180 ECTS-points) * ''dr. '' (higher doctoral degree = normally after a minimum of 5 years of individual and original research)

Finland

Historically, the Finnish higher education system is derived from the German system. The current system of higher education comprises two types of higher education institutions, the universities and the polytechnics, many of whom refer to themselves as universities of applied sciences (UAS). With the exception of a few fields, such as medicine and dentistry, the Finnish system of higher education degrees is in compliance with the Bologna process. Universities award bachelor's degrees (''kandidaatti / kandidat''), Master's degrees (''maisteri / magister'') and doctoral degrees (''lisensiaatin tutkinto / licentiat examen'' and ''tohtorin tutkinto / doktorexamen''). In most fields, the system of doctoral degrees is two-tier, the degree of licentiate is an independent academic degree but completing the degree of doctor does not require completion of a licentiate degree. The polytechnics (universities of applied sciences) have the right to award bachelor's and master's degrees; the degree titles are distinct from the titles used for university degrees. In general, students who are admitted to bachelor studies at a university have the right to continue to studies at master level. At polytechnics, the right to continue to master-level studies has to be applied for separately and there is also a work experience requirement. The majority of master's degree holders have graduated from university. The degrees awarded by the universities and polytechnics are at par by law, but the content and orientation of studies is different. A master's degree obtained at a polytechnic gives the same academic right to continue studies at doctoral level as a master's degree obtained at a university.

France

The French national education system makes a distinction between a ''diplôme national'' ("national degree") and '' diplôme universitaire'' ("university degree"). The former, which are considered to have a higher status, are controlled by the state and issued by universities on behalf of the responsible ministry; the latter are controlled and granted by the universities themselves. Additionally, private universities and schools may be recognised by the state with a ''diplôme visé'' ("recognised degree") and then, after five years of recognition, have their degrees validated by the state, the validation having to be renewed every six years. Historically, academic degrees were orientated towards research, and the

vocational education Vocational education is education that prepares people for a skilled craft. Vocational education can also be seen as that type of education given to an individual to prepare that individual to be gainfully employed or self employed with req ...

system awarded only diplomas. Since the implementation of the

in France, the degree-granting system is being simplified: schools continue to grant their own diplomas, but the state's recognition in degree awarding is more important than before. Diploma courses such as the university Bachelor of Technical Studies (''bachelor universitaire de technologie''; BUT) are recognised as

vocational A vocation () is an occupation to which a person is especially drawn or for which they are suited, trained or qualified. Though now often used in non-religious contexts, the meanings of the term originated in Christianity. A calling, in the reli ...

qualifications worth 180 ECTS credits; the Advanced Technician Certificate (''brevet de technician supérieur''; BTS) is now recognised as a "short cycle" qualification worth 120 ECTS credits, allowing progression from these to academic qualifications. However, in France there are diplomas that are not recognised as degrees, such as specific diplomas designed by colleges (''écoles supérieures''), like the ''

mastère spécialisé The Mastère Spécialisé (), also called the Specialized Master or Advanced Master is a French post-graduate specialization degree created in 1986 by the French Conférence des Grandes Écoles. It is a full-time, one-year program (75 ECTS) whic ...

'' (accredited by the '' Conférence des Grandes Écoles'' but not automatically by the French Government). Since 2002, ''

grande école A (; ) is a specialized top-level educational institution in France and some other countries such as Morocco and Tunisia. are part of an alternative educational system that operates alongside the mainstream List of public universities in Franc ...

'' diplomas have been able to award a university degree, such as the

Sciences Po Sciences Po () or Sciences Po Paris, also known as the Paris Institute of Political Studies (), is a public research university located in Paris, France, that holds the status of ''grande école'' and the legal status of . The university's unde ...

''Bachelor'', which is a state- accredited diploma that awards a bachelor's degree (''

'' in French). The recognised degrees are in three levels, following the Qualifications Framework of the European Higher Education Area. These are the ''licence'' (first level), ''master'' (second level) and ''doctorat'' (third level). All licence degrees take 3 years (180 ECTS credits) and all master's degrees take 2 years (120 ECTS credits). There are also 5-year (300 ECTS credits)

s, which are master's degrees. In addition to the doctorate, which is always a research degree, the ''Diplôme d'Etat de docteur en médicine'' and the ''Diplôme d'Etat de docteur vétérinaire'' are third level qualifications and recognized as level 7 in EQF.

Germany

Traditionally in Germany, students graduated after four-to-six years either with a '' Magister'' degree in

social science Social science (often rendered in the plural as the social sciences) is one of the branches of science, devoted to the study of societies and the relationships among members within those societies. The term was formerly used to refer to the ...

linguistics Linguistics is the scientific study of language. The areas of linguistic analysis are syntax (rules governing the structure of sentences), semantics (meaning), Morphology (linguistics), morphology (structure of words), phonetics (speech sounds ...

or the

, or with a ''

'' degree in the

natural science Natural science or empirical science is one of the branches of science concerned with the description, understanding and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer ...

economics Economics () is a behavioral science that studies the Production (economics), production, distribution (economics), distribution, and Consumption (economics), consumption of goods and services. Economics focuses on the behaviour and interac ...

business administration Business administration is the administration of a commercial enterprise. It includes all aspects of overseeing and supervising the business operations of an organization. Overview The administration of a business includes the performance o ...

political science Political science is the scientific study of politics. It is a social science dealing with systems of governance and Power (social and political), power, and the analysis of political activities, political philosophy, political thought, polit ...

sociology Sociology is the scientific study of human society that focuses on society, human social behavior, patterns of Interpersonal ties, social relationships, social interaction, and aspects of culture associated with everyday life. The term sociol ...

. Those degrees were the first, and at the same time highest, non-

-titles in many disciplines before their gradual replacement by other Anglo-Saxon-inspired master's and bachelor's degrees under the

. The ''Magister'' and ''Diplom'' awarded by universities, both of which require a final thesis, are considered equivalent to a master's degree, although the ''Diplom'' awarded by a ''Fachhochschule'' (university of applied sciences) is at bachelor's degree level. A special kind of examination is the '' Staatsexamen'' (State Examination). It is not an academic degree but a government licensing examination that future doctors, dentists, teachers,

lawyer A lawyer is a person who is qualified to offer advice about the law, draft legal documents, or represent individuals in legal matters. The exact nature of a lawyer's work varies depending on the legal jurisdiction and the legal system, as w ...

s (solicitors), judges, public prosecutors, patent attorneys and

pharmacist A pharmacist, also known as a chemist in English in the Commonwealth of Nations, Commonwealth English, is a healthcare professional who is knowledgeable about preparation, mechanism of action, clinical usage and legislation of medications in ...

s have to pass in order to be eligible to work in their profession. Students usually study at university for three to six years, depending on the field, before they take the first Staatsexamen. While this is normally at the master's level, a few courses (e.g. primary and lower secondary level teaching), which have a standard study period of three years, are assigned to the bachelor's level. After the first Staatsexamen, teachers and lawyers go through a form of

pupillage A pupillage, in England and Wales, Northern Ireland, Kenya, Malaysia, Pakistan and Hong Kong, is the final, vocational stage of training for those wishing to become practising barristers. Pupillage is similar to an apprenticeship, during which ba ...

, the ''Vorbereitungsdienst'', for two years, before they are able to take the second Staatsexamen, which tests their practical abilities in their jobs. At some institutions pharmacists and jurists can choose whether to be awarded the first Staatsexamen or a master's degree (or formerly the ''Diplom''). Since 1999, the traditional degrees have been replaced by

bachelor's A bachelor's degree (from Medieval Latin ''baccalaureus'') or baccalaureate (from Modern Latin ''baccalaureatus'') is an undergraduate degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to six years ( ...

(''Bachelor'') and

master's A master's degree (from Latin ) is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities or colleges upon completion of a course of study demonstrating mastery or a high-order overview of a specific field of study or area of professional prac ...

(''Master'') degrees as part of the

. The main reasons for this change are to make degrees internationally comparable and to introduce degrees to the German system that take less time to complete (German students typically took five years or more to earn a ''Magister'' or ''Diplom''). Some universities were initially resistant to this change, considering it a displacement of a venerable tradition for the pure sake of globalization. However, universities had to fulfill the new standard by the end of 2007. Enrollment into ''

'' and '' Magister'' programs is no longer possible at most universities, with a few exceptions. Programs leading to ''Staatsexamen'' did not usually make the transition to Bologna degrees.

s are issued with various designations, depending on the faculty: e.g., Doktor der Naturwissenschaften (Doctor of Natural Science); Doktor der Rechtswissenschaften (Doctor of Law); Doktor der Medizin (Doctor of Medicine); Doktor der Philosophie (Doctor of Philosophy), to name just a few. Multiple doctorates and honorary doctorates are often listed, and even used in forms of address, in German-speaking countries. A Diplom, Magister, Master's or Staatsexamen student can proceed to a doctorate. Well-qualified bachelor's graduates can also enrol directly into PhD programs after a procedure to determine their aptitude is administered by the admitting university. The doctoral degree—such as Dr. rer. nat., Dr. phil. and others—is the highest academic degree in Germany and is generally a research degree. The degree ''Dr. med.'' for

medical doctor A physician, medical practitioner (British English), medical doctor, or simply doctor is a health professional who practices medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoring health through the study, diagnosis, prognosis ...

s has to be viewed differently; medical students usually write their doctoral theses right after they have completed studies, without any previously conducted scientific research, just as students in other disciplines write a ''Diplom'', ''Magister'' or ''Master's'' thesis. Higher doctorates, such as the D.Sc. degree in the UK, are not present in the German system. However, sometimes incorrectly regarded as a degree, the

Habilitation Habilitation is the highest university degree, or the procedure by which it is achieved, in Germany, France, Italy, Poland and some other European and non-English-speaking countries. The candidate fulfills a university's set criteria of excelle ...

is a higher academic qualification—in Germany, Austria, Switzerland and the Czech Republic—that grants a further teaching and research endorsement after a doctorate. It is earned by writing a second thesis (the ''Habilitationsschrift'') or presenting a portfolio of first-author publications on an advanced topic. The exact requirements for satisfying a Habilitation depend on individual universities. The "habil.", as it is abbreviated, to indicate that a habilitation has been awarded after the doctorate, was traditionally the conventional qualification for serving at least as a ''Privatdozent'' (e.g. "PD Dr. habil.") (senior lecturer) in an academic professorship. Some German universities no longer require the Habilitation, although preference may still be given to applicants who have this credential in securing academic posts in the more traditional fields.

Greece

In Greece access to university is possible after national exams (Panhellenic Exams). The Greek academic degrees are: * Ptychio (EQL Level 6 or bachelor's degree) * Diploma (EQL Level 7 or Integrated master's degree) * Metaptychiako Diploma Eidikefsis (EQL Level 7 or master's degree) * Didaktoriko Diploma (EQL Level 8 or Doctorate)

Ireland

Ireland Ireland (, ; ; Ulster Scots dialect, Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean, in Northwestern Europe. Geopolitically, the island is divided between the Republic of Ireland (officially Names of the Irish state, named Irelan ...

operates under a National Framework of Qualifications (NFQ). The school-leaving qualification attained by students is called the Leaving Certificate. It is considered as Level 4–5 in the framework. This qualification is the traditional route of entry into third-level education. There are also Level 5 qualifications in certain vocational subjects (e.g. Level 5 Certificate in Restaurant Operations) awarded by the Further Education and Training Awards Council (FETAC). Advanced Certificates at Level 6 are also awarded by FETAC. The Higher Education and Training Awards Council (HETAC) awards the following: A

higher certificate The Higher Certificate (''Ardteastas'' in Irish) is a third level education award at level 6 on the National Framework of Qualifications in the Republic of Ireland. The Higher Certificate is awarded by various Institutes of Technology. A Higher ...

at Level 6; An ordinary bachelor's degree at Level 7; An honours bachelor's degree or

higher diploma A higher diploma is an academic award in Iraq, Libya, the United Kingdom, Singapore, Hong Kong, Ireland and Oman. In Iraq, it is awarded one year after a bachelor's degree (i.e., not equivalent to a bachelor's degree). In Ireland it is a postgradu ...

at Level 8; A

postgraduate diploma fILE:Prédio Pós Graduação IMECC Unicamp.jpg, The State University of Campinas, as well as many Brazilian universities, offer Postgraduate courses in Brazil A postgraduate diploma (PgD, PgDip, PGDip, PG Dip., PGD, Dipl. PGD) is a postgraduat ...

at Level 9; A

doctoral degree A doctorate (from Latin ''doctor'', meaning "teacher") or doctoral degree is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities and some other educational institutions, derived from the ancient formalism '' licentia docendi'' ("licence to teach ...

higher doctorate A doctorate (from Latin ''doctor'', meaning "teacher") or doctoral degree is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities and some other educational institutions, derived from the ancient formalism '' licentia docendi'' ("licence to teach ...

at Level 10. These are completed in

institutes of technology An institute of technology (also referred to as technological university, technical university, university of technology, polytechnic university) is an institution of tertiary education that specializes in engineering, technology, applied science ...

universities A university () is an educational institution, institution of tertiary education and research which awards academic degrees in several Discipline (academia), academic disciplines. ''University'' is derived from the Latin phrase , which roughly ...

Italy

In Italy access to university is possible after gaining the ''Diploma di Maturità'' at 19 years of age, following 5 years of study in a specific high school focused on certain subjects (e.g. ''liceo classico'' focused on classical subjects, including philosophy, ancient Greek and Latin; ''liceo scientifico'' focused on scientific subjects such as maths, chemistry, biology and physics but also including philosophy, ancient Latin and Italian literature; ''liceo linguistico'' focused on foreign languages and literature; ''istituto tecnico'' focused on practical and theoretical subjects such as mechanics, aerospace, shipbuilding, electronics, computer science, telecommunications, chemistry, biology, fashion industry, food industry, building technology, law and economics). After gaining the diploma one can enter university and enrol in any curriculum (e.g. physics, medicine, chemistry, engineering, architecture): all high school diplomas allow access to any university curriculum, although most universities have pre-admission tests. In 2011, Italy introduced a qualifications framework, known as the ''Quadro dei Titoli Italiani'' (QTI), which tied together, in a three-level system, both the new qualifications introduced as part of the

and the older, pre-Bologna qualifications and which covers qualifications from university institutions and higher-education institutions for fine arts, music and dance (AFAM institutions). In addition to academic degrees, many professional qualifications are tied to the QTI at the different levels. The first level, tied to the first cycle of the Bologna Process, covers the ''

laurea In Italy, the ''laurea'' is the main post-secondary academic degree. The name originally referred literally to the laurel wreath, since ancient times a sign of honor and now worn by Italian students right after their official graduation ceremo ...

'' (bachelor's degree) in universities and the ''Diploma accademico di primo livello'' in AFAM institutions. The older qualifications that map to this level are the ''Diploma universitario'' and the ''Diploma di scuole dirette a fini speciali (SDAFS)'' from universities, and the ''Diploma di Conservatorio'', ''Diploma di Istituto Musicale Pareggiato'', ''Diploma dell'Accademia di Belle Arti'', ''Diploma dell'Istituto Superiore delle Industrie Artistiche (ISIA)'', ''Diploma dell'Accademia Nazionale di Danza'' and ''Diploma dell'Accademia Nazionale di Arte Drammatica'' from AFAM institutions. The ''laurea'' is obtained after three years of study (180 ECTS credits) and confers the academic title of ''dottore''; the older university qualifications at this level took two to three years, with the three-year courses conferring the title of ''dottore''. The second level, tied to the second cycle of the Bologna Process, covers the ''laurea magistrale'' and the ''laurea specialistica'' of university institutions, and the ''Diploma accademico di secondo livello'' of AFAM institutions. The old ''Diploma di laurea'' is mapped to this level. The ''Laurea magistrale'' and the ''laurea specialistica'' are obtained after two further years of study (120 ECTS credits) and give the academic title of ''dottore magistrale''. The old ''Diploma di laurea'' took four to six years but was accessed directly from school, with a possible reduction by one year for those with a related ''diploma'' and also granted the title of ''dottore magistrale''. The third level, tied to the third cycle of the Bologna Process, covers the ''Dottorato di ricerca'' from university institutions and the ''Diploma accademico di formazione alla ricerca'' from AFAM institutions. The old ''Dottorato di ricerca'' and ''Diploma di specializzazione'' are tied to this level. The ''Dottorato di ricerca'', under both new and old systems, takes a minimum of three years after the ''laurea magistralie/specialistica'', and gives the academic titles of ''Dottore di Ricerca (Dott. Ric.)'' and PhD. The old ''Diploma di specializzazione'' took two to six years and gave the academic title of ''Specialista''. Universities in Italy offer a number of other qualifications, including the ''Master universitario di primo livello'' (1 year/60 ECTS credits, 2nd cycle qualification) and the ''Master universitario di secondo livello'' (1 year/60 ECTS credits, 3rd cycle qualification), continuing from the ''laurea'' and the ''laurea magistrale/specialistica'', respectively. These do not give access to the PhD. The ''Diploma di specializzazione'', which is offered in a few specific professions, takes two to six years and gives the title of ''specialista''. The ''Diploma di perfezionamento'' is a university certificate, aimed at professional training or in specific fields of study, which usually takes one year; it is not allocated a level in the framework. AFAM institutions may offer the ''Diploma di perfezionamento o Master'' and ''Diploma accademico di specializzazione''. These are one-year and two-year qualifications, respectively, and may be offered at the second cycle or third cycle level, distinguished by adding ''(I)'' or ''(II)'' after the qualification name. Higher schools for language mediators offer the ''Diploma di mediatore linguistico'', a first-cycle degree that takes three years (180 ECTS credits), and which gives access to the ''laurea specialistica''. Specialisation institutes/schools in psychoterapy offer the ''Diploma di specializzazione in psicoterapia'', a third-cycle qualification that takes at least four years and requires a ''laurea magistrale/specialistica'' in either psychology or medicine and surgery, along with professional registration.

Netherlands

In the

Netherlands , Terminology of the Low Countries, informally Holland, is a country in Northwestern Europe, with Caribbean Netherlands, overseas territories in the Caribbean. It is the largest of the four constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Nether ...

, the structure of academic studies was altered significantly in 1982 when the "" (Two Phase Structure) was introduced by the Dutch Minister of Education, Wim Deetman. With this structure an attempt was made to standardise all the different studies and to have them conform to similar timetables. An additional effect was that students would be forced to produce results within a preset time-frame or otherwise discontinue their studies. The two-phase structure has been adapted to a bachelor-master structure as a result of the

= Admission

= In order for a Dutch student to get access to a university education, the student must complete a six-year pre-university secondary education called '' voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs'' (VWO). There are other routes possible, but only if the educational level of the applicant is comparable to that at the end of the standard two levels is access to university education granted. For some studies, specific end levels or disciplines are required, e.g., graduating without having studied

physics Physics is the scientific study of matter, its Elementary particle, fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior through space and time, and the related entities of energy and force. "Physical science is that department of knowledge whi ...

biology Biology is the scientific study of life and living organisms. It is a broad natural science that encompasses a wide range of fields and unifying principles that explain the structure, function, growth, History of life, origin, evolution, and ...

and

chemistry Chemistry is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter. It is a physical science within the natural sciences that studies the chemical elements that make up matter and chemical compound, compounds made of atoms, molecules a ...

will make it impossible to study

. People 21 years old, or older, who do not have the required entrance diplomas, may opt for an entrance exam to be admitted to a higher-educational curriculum. In this exam, they have to prove their command of disciplines considered necessary for pursuing such study. After 1 September 2002, they would be thus admitted to a Bachelor's curriculum, not to a Master's curriculum. For some disciplines in the Netherlands, a governmentally determined limited access is in place (although under political review for abolishment, as of February 2011). This limits the number of applicants to a specific course of study, thus trying to control the number of future graduates. The disciplines most renowned for their

numerus clausus ''Numerus clausus'' ("closed number" in Latin) is one of many methods used to limit the number of students who may study at a university. In many cases, the goal of the ''numerus clausus'' is simply to limit the number of students to the maximu ...

are medicine and dentistry. Every year a combination of the highest pre-university graduation grades and some additional conditions determine who can start such a

course of study and who can not. Almost all

Dutch universities Dutch universities are supported by public funding (with the exception of Nyenrode Business University) so that university, universities do not have to rely on private funding to pay for tuition. This public funding is entirely output-based, dete ...

are government supported, with only a few privately owned universities in existence (i.e. one in

business Business is the practice of making one's living or making money by producing or Trade, buying and selling Product (business), products (such as goods and Service (economics), services). It is also "any activity or enterprise entered into for ...

and all others in

Leiden University Leiden University (abbreviated as ''LEI''; ) is a Public university, public research university in Leiden, Netherlands. Established in 1575 by William the Silent, William, Prince of Orange as a Protestantism, Protestant institution, it holds the d ...

is the oldest, founded in 1575.

= Pre-Bologna phases

= Before the introduction of the bachelor-master structure, almost all academic studies in the Netherlands had the same length of four years and had two phases: * ''The " propedeutische fase" (1–2 years):'' After finishing this phase, a student can follow another two years' study, which grants equivalents to the Anglo-Saxon BSc (

Bachelor of Science A Bachelor of Science (BS, BSc, B.S., B.Sc., SB, or ScB; from the Latin ') is a bachelor's degree that is awarded for programs that generally last three to five years. The first university to admit a student to the degree of Bachelor of Scienc ...

), BA (

) or LLB (

Bachelor of Laws A Bachelor of Laws (; LLB) is an undergraduate law degree offered in most common law countries as the primary law degree and serves as the first professional qualification for legal practitioners. This degree requires the study of core legal subje ...

). * ''The "doctorale fase" (3–4 years):'' Completing the first phase successfully gives the student access to the second phase. Again, failure to finish within the time given will lead to discontinuation. This phase is concluded with the "" (doctoral exam). This is not similar to any type of doctoral exam that would grant the student with any type of

title. Successful completion, however, does grant the student the Dutch degree of "drs." "

doctorandus Doctorandus (; ; drs.) is a Dutch academic title according to the pre- Bachelor– Master system. The female form is doctoranda (dra.; this form is not commonly used). The title is acquired by passing the ''doctoraalexamen'', the exam which usua ...

", ir. ("ingenieur" – engineer) or "mr." ("Meester in de rechten" – master of law). Nowadays these Dutch titles have been largely replaced by the Anglo Saxon titles MSc (

), MA (

) and LLM (

Master of Laws A Master of Laws (M.L. or LL.M.; Latin: ' or ') is a postgraduate academic degree, pursued by those either holding an undergraduate academic law degree, a professional law degree, or an undergraduate degree in another subject. In many jurisdi ...

), depending on the area of study. For medical students the "

" degree is not equivalent to the European Anglo Saxon postgraduate research degree in medicine, of MD (

Medical Doctor A physician, medical practitioner (British English), medical doctor, or simply doctor is a health professional who practices medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoring health through the study, diagnosis, prognosis ...

). Besides the title doctorandus, the graduates of the Curius curriculum may also bear the title ''arts'' (physician). The doctorandus in medicine title is granted after four years (nominal time) of the Curius curriculum, while the title physician is granted after six years (nominal time) of that curriculum. The Dutch physician title is equal to a MSc degree according to the Bologna process and can be compared with the MBBS in the UK degree system and the North American MD, but not the UK MD degree, which is a research degree. One-on-one equivalence or interchangeability of the Dutch medical title and MD is often suggested. However, officially the MD title is not known, nor legal to use, in the Netherlands. The correct notation for a Dutch physician who completed his or her medical studies, but did not pursue a doctoral (

-like) study is "drs." (e.g. ''drs. Jansen, arts'') and not "dr." in medicine, which is often used incorrectly. However, like in the United Kingdom, physicians holding these degrees are referred to as 'Doctor' by courtesy. In the Netherlands, there is the informal title ''dokter'' for physicians, but not ''doctor'' (dr.), unless they also earn such adegree by completing a PhD curriculum. Furthermore, the ''doctorandus'' degree does not give a medical student the right to treat patients; for this a minimum of two years of additional study (internship) is required. After obtaining a Medical Board registration, Dutch physicians must work an additional two to six years in a field of expertise to become a registered medical specialist. Dutch surgeons commonly are only granted access to surgical training and positions after obtaining a doctorate (PhD) successfully. In recent years, the six-year (nominal time) old Curius curriculum (which offered the titles doctorandus and physician) has been replaced with a three-year (nominal time) Bachelor Curius+ followed by a three-year (nominal time) Master Curius+. Those who had already begun their old-style Curius curriculum before that will still have to complete it as a six-year study (nominal time). A doctorandus in law uses the title ''meester'' (master, abbreviated as ''mr. Jansen'') instead of drs., and some courses of study, such as in technology and agriculture< grant the title ''ingenieur'' (engineer, noted as ''ir. Jansen'') instead of drs. These titles as equivalent to an LL.M (the title mr.) and to a MSc (the title ir.) and if gotten before 1 September 2002, from a recognized Dutch university, may be rendered as M (from Master) behind one's name, instead of using the typical Dutch honorifics before one's name. Since 1 September 2002, Dutch universities offer specific BSc, BA or LLB studies followed by MSc, MA or LLM studies, thus integrating into the international scientific community, offering lectures, other classes, seminars or complete curricula in English instead of Dutch. According to their field of study, MSc graduates may use either ir. or drs. before their names; MA graduates may use drs. before their name; LLM graduates may use mr. before their names, but only if they received such degrees from recognized Dutch universities. Not uncommonly, the Dutch "drs." abbreviation can cause much confusion in other countries, since it is perceived as a person who has a

in multiple disciplines. In the Netherlands, the degree

MPhil A Master of Philosophy (MPhil or PhM; Latin ' or ') is a postgraduate degree. The name of the degree is most often abbreviated MPhil (or, at times, as PhM in other countries). MPhil are awarded to postgraduate students after completing at least ...

was not awarded after 2009 as the Universiteiten van Nederland refused to recognize the MPhils awarded by

. After successfully obtaining a "drs.", "ir." or "mr." degree, a student has the opportunity to follow a further, promotional course of study (informally called

) to eventually obtain a doctorate and subsequently the title "doctor". Promotion studies are ideally structured according to a preset time schedule of 4 to 6 years, during which the student has to be mentored by at least one

professor Professor (commonly abbreviated as Prof.) is an Academy, academic rank at university, universities and other tertiary education, post-secondary education and research institutions in most countries. Literally, ''professor'' derives from Latin ...

. The promotion study has to be concluded with at least a scientific thesis, which has to be defended to "a gathering of his/her peers", in practice the board of the faculty with guest professors from other faculties or universities added. More and more common—and, in some disciplines, even mandatory—is that the student write, and have accepted for publication by peer-reviewed journals, original scientific work. The number of publications required is often debated and varies considerably between the various disciplines. However, in all disciplines the student is obligated to produce and publish a dissertation or thesis in book form.

= Bachelor/master structure

= All current Dutch academic programs are offered under the Anglo-Saxon bachelor/master structure. It takes three years to earn a bachelor's degree and another one or two years to earn a master's degree. There are three official academic bachelor titles (BA, BSc and LLB) and three official master titles (MA, MSc and LLM). These academic titles are protected by the Dutch government.

= Using academic titles

= After obtaining a doctorate, Dutch doctors may bear either the title dr. (lower case) before, or the letter D following, their name, but not both simultaneously. There is no notation signifying the specific discipline in which the doctorate is obtained. As of 1 January 2021, the title 'PhD' and post-nominal degree 'PhD' can also be used, and these are also legally protected. Stacking of titles, as seen in countries such as Germany (Prof. Dr. Dr. Dr. Gruber), is highly uncommon in the Netherlands and not well received culturally. Those who have multiple doctoral titles may use dr.mult. before their name, but this is seldom seen in practice. The ''honoris causa'' doctors may use dr.h.c. before their name. Combining different Dutch titles, especially in different disciplines, is allowed, however, (e.g. mr. dr. Jansen, dr. mr. Jansen, dr. ir. Jansen, mr. ir. drs. Jansen, mr. ir. Jansen). The use of the combination ir. ing. is frequent, indicating one holds a

HBO Home Box Office (HBO) is an American pay television service, which is the flagship property of namesake parent-subsidiary Home Box Office, Inc., itself a unit owned by Warner Bros. Discovery. The overall Home Box Office business unit is based a ...

, vocational, or professional engineering degree, together with an academic engineering degree. What is not allowed is, after obtaining a doctorate, using dr. drs. Jansen; dr. Jansen should be used instead. A combination of a Dutch title with an international title is not allowed, except for some limited number of international professional titles. Thus, one should choose either one's classical Dutch title or use the shortcut provided by the law following one's name (since 1 September 2002 it is the other way around: those who hold Dutch degrees as MSc, LLM or MA may optionally use the old-style shortcuts before their names). "''Doctors''" (dr.) can proceed to teach at universities as "" (UD –

assistant professor Assistant professor is an academic rank just below the rank of an associate professor used in universities or colleges, mainly in the United States, Canada, Japan, and South Korea. Overview This position is generally taken after earning a doct ...

). With time, experience and achievement, this can evolve to a position as "" (UHD –

associate professor Associate professor is an academic title with two principal meanings: in the North American system and that of the ''Commonwealth system''. In the ''North American system'', used in the United States and many other countries, it is a position ...

). Officially an UHD still works under the supervision of a "" (

), the head of the department. However, this is not a given; it is also possible that a department is headed by a "plain" doctor, based on knowledge, achievement and expertise. The position of "hoogleraar" is the highest possible scientific position at a university and equivalent to the US "full" professor. The Dutch

's title, noted as ''prof. Jansen'' or ''professor Jansen'', is connected to one's employment. This means that, should the

leave the

, he or she also loses the privilege to use the title of

. Retired professors are an exception and may continue to note the title in front of their name, or use the title emeritus professor (em. prof.). People who switch to a non-university job lose their professorial title and are only allowed to use the "dr." abbreviation. Unlike some other European countries, such as Germany, Dutch academic titles are used rarely outside academia, hold no value in everyday life, and typically are not listed on official documentation (e.g. passport, drivers license, (governmental) communication). Dutch academic titles, however, are legally protected and can only be used by graduates from Dutch institutions of higher education. Illegal use is considered a misdemeanor and is subject to legal prosecution. Holders of foreign degrees, therefore, need special permission before being able to use a recognised Dutch title, but they are free to use their own foreign title (untranslated). In practice, the Public Department does not prosecute the illegal use of a protected title (the Netherlands applies prosecutorial discretion, so some known criminal uses are not prosecuted).

Norway

Prior to 1980, there were around 50 different degrees and corresponding educational programs within the Norwegian higher education system. Degrees had titles that included the gender based Latin term ''candidatus/candidata''. The second part of the title usually consisted of a Latin word corresponding to the profession or training. For example, Cand. Mag. (Candidatus Magisterii) required 4 to 5 years, Cand. Real. (Candidatus Realium) required 6 years of study and a scientific thesis in a select set of scientific disciplines (realia). Over the years these were replaced gradually with degrees that were more and more internationally comparable programs and corresponding titles. For example, the degree Cand. Scient. replaced Cand. Real. in the period 1985 to 2003. These degrees were all retired in 2003 in favour of an international system. The reform of higher education in Norway, ''Kvalitetsreformen'' ("The Quality Reform"), was passed in the Norwegian Parliament, the

Storting The Storting ( ; ) is the supreme legislature of Norway, established in 1814 by the Constitution of Norway. It is located in Oslo. The Unicameralism, unicameral parliament has 169 members and is elected every four years based on party-list propo ...

, in 2001 and carried out during the 2003/2004 academic year. It introduced standard periods of study and the titles ''master'' and ''bachelor ( baccalaureus)''. The system differentiates between a free master's degree and a master's degree in

technology Technology is the application of Conceptual model, conceptual knowledge to achieve practical goals, especially in a reproducible way. The word ''technology'' can also mean the products resulting from such efforts, including both tangible too ...

. The latter corresponds to the former ''sivilingeniør'' degree (not to be confused with a degree in

civil engineering Civil engineering is a regulation and licensure in engineering, professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including public works such as roads ...

, which is but one of many degrees linked to the title ''sivilingeniør'', which is still in use for new graduates who can choose to also use the old title). All pre-2001 doctoral degree titles were replaced with the title "Philosophical Doctor degree", written ''philosophiæ doctor'' (instead of the traditional ''doctor philosophiæ''). The title dr. philos. is a substantially higher degree than the PhD and is reserved for those who qualify for such a degree without participating in an organized doctoral degree program.

Poland

Poland Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It extends from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains in the south, bordered by Lithuania and Russia to the northeast, Belarus and Ukrai ...

, the system is similar to the German one. * ' title – given by a

; the equivalent of

degree or

degree (depending on

academic major An academic major is the academic discipline to which an undergraduate student formally commits. A student who successfully completes all courses required for the major qualifies for an undergraduate degree. The word ''major'' (also called ''con ...

); granted after at least 3 years of study. * ' () title –

Engineer's degree An engineer's degree is an advanced academic degree in engineering which is conferred in Europe, some countries of Asia and Latin America, North Africa and a few institutions in the United States. The degree may require a thesis but always require ...

given by a

technical university An institute of technology (also referred to as technological university, technical university, university of technology, polytechnic university) is an institution of tertiary education that specializes in engineering, technology, applied science ...

; granted after at least about 3.5 years of study. * ' () title – the equivalent of a

degree, granted after 5–6 years of study or 2 years of additional study by holders of a

with classification of

Honours Degree Honours degree has various meanings in the context of different degrees and education systems. Most commonly it refers to a variant of the undergraduate bachelor's degree containing a larger volume of material or a higher standard of study, ...

. * ' () title – the equivalent of a

Master of Engineering A Master of Engineering (abbreviated MEng, ME, M.E. or M.Eng.) is a Professional degree, professional master's degree in the field of engineering. International variations Australia In Australia, the Master of Engineering degree is a research ...

, granted after about 2 years of additional study by holders of a degree of

. * ' () degree – the equivalent of

. * ' () degree – Polish

degree, requires approval by an external ministerial body. * ' () degree – the highest title, officially conferred by the

president of Poland The president of Poland ( ), officially the president of the Republic of Poland (), is the head of state of Poland. His or her prerogatives and duties are determined in the Constitution of Poland. The president jointly exercises the executive ...

Russia, Ukraine and some other former USSR republics

Since 1992, Russian higher education has introduced a multilevel system, enabling higher education institutions to award and issue Bachelor of Science and Master of Science degrees. In

Russia Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the list of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the world, and extends across Time in Russia, eleven time zones, sharing Borders ...

Ukraine Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the List of European countries by area, second-largest country in Europe after Russia, which Russia–Ukraine border, borders it to the east and northeast. Ukraine also borders Belarus to the nor ...

and some other former USSR republics educational degrees are awarded after finishing a college education. There are several levels of education that one must choose in the 2nd and 3rd year of college, usually in the 3rd year of study. # A

usually takes 4 years of college (minimum level to be recognized as having a higher education). # A

specialist degree The specialist degree is an academic degree conferred by a college or university. The degree is formatted differently worldwide and may be either a five-year program or a doctoral level graduate program that occurs after a master's degree but befo ...

is awarded after 5 years of college (4 + 1). # A Master's (Magister) degree is awarded after 6 years of college (4 + 2). But a Specialist degree can appear equivalent to Magister degree by reason of taking an equivalent amount of time. Usually Specialist or Magister degrees incorporate the bachelor's degrees in them, but only the high-level degree is given on the final diploma. Specialist and Magister degrees require taking final state exams and producing written work on practical application of studied skills or research thesis (usually 70–100 pages) and is roughly equivalent to a

. The first-level academic degree is called ''

Candidate of Sciences A Candidate of Sciences is a Doctor of Philosophy, PhD-equivalent academic research degree in all the post-Soviet countries with the exception of Ukraine, and until the 1990s it was also awarded in Central and Eastern European countries. It is ...

'' ("Kandidat Nauk"). This degree requires extensive research, taking some classes, publications in peer-reviewed academic journals (not less than 5 publications in Ukraine or 3 publications in Russia), taking 3 or more exams (one or more in their speciality, one in a foreign language and one in the history and philosophy of science) and writing and defending an in-depth thesis (80–200 pages) called a "dissertation". Finally, there is a ''

Doctor of Sciences A Doctor of Sciences, abbreviated д-р наук or д. н.; ; ; ; is a higher doctoral degree in the Russian Empire, Soviet Union and many Commonwealth of Independent States countries. One of the prerequisites of receiving a Doctor of Sciences ...

'' ("Doktor Nauk") degree in Russia and some former USSR academic environments. This degree is granted for contributions in a certain field (formally – who established new direction or new field in science). It requires discovery of new phenomenon or development of new theory or essential development of new direction, etc. There is no equivalent of this "doctor of sciences" degree in the US academic system. It is roughly equivalent to

in Germany, France, Austria and some other European countries. In countries with a two-tier system of doctoral degrees, the degree of ''Candidate of Sciences'' should be considered for recognition at the level of the first doctoral degree. According to ''Guidelines for the recognition of Russian qualifications in the other countries'', in countries with a two-tier system of doctoral degrees, the degree of ''Doktor Nauk'' should be considered for recognition at the level of the second doctoral degree. In countries in which only one doctoral degree exists, the degree of ''Doktor Nauk'' should be considered for recognition at the level of this degree. According to

International Standard Classification of Education The International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) is a statistical framework for organizing information on education maintained by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). It is a member of the int ...

(ISCED) UNESCO 2011, par.262, for purposes of international educational statistics: # DPhil to ''Candidate of Sciences/Philosophy''; # D.Lit. to ''Candidate of Sciences in Literature''; # D.Sc. to ''Candidate of Sciences of Natural Science''; # LL.D. to ''Candidate of Sciences of Legal Science''.

Spain

Spain's higher-education legal framework includes official and accredited education, as well as non-official education. 1.1 Official and accredited education In Spain, accreditation of official university study programmes is regulated by law and monitored by governmental agencies responsible for verifying their quality and suitability for official approval and accreditation. Official professional study programmes lead to degree qualifications (''Títulos'') with full academic and professional rights. The degrees awarded in accordance with the latest higher-education system are: 1. Bachelor's Degree (''Grado'') – 240 ECTS Credits in 4 years. 2. Master's Degree (''Master Universitario'') – 60 to 120 ECTS Credits in 1–2 years. 3. Doctoral degree PhD (''Doctorado'') – in 3–4 years. Accredited bachelor's degrees and master's degrees qualifications will always be described as ''Grado'' and ''Master Universitario''. These qualifications comply with the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) framework. Officially approved and accredited university study programmes by law must implement this framework in order to attain and retain accreditation in Spain. Spanish Official University Education Legal Framework 02

Spanish Official University Education Legal Framework 02

1.2 Non-official education Not all EHEA-compliant study programmes in Spain are officially approved or accredited by government agencies. Some universities offer proprietary study programmes as alternatives for a variety of reasons: serving the continuing education market for individual self-advancement and also providing higher education to individuals who have failed to acquire bachelor's degree qualifications. The main reason for offering these alternative studies, though, is the complex bureaucratic process required to receive the approval of specific titles, in particular when it refers to new studies or studies about matters that do not fit with the official studies. For historical reasons, the academic system has been very much under the control of the state, and private universities are still regarded with as a threat to the state system. These programmes fall within the category of "non officially approved and accredited" or ''estudios no oficiales'', and they confer no academic or professional rights. This means that they do not entitle the bearer to claim to have any specific academic or professional qualifications, as far as the Spanish authorities are concerned. However, there may be private agreements to recognize the titles. Spanish Official University Education Legal Framework 01

Spanish Official University Education Legal Framework 01

Universities offering non-official study programmes are legally bound to clearly differentiate between officially-approved and non-officially-approved qualifications. Non-accredited master's degrees will be described as just ''Master'', without the accompanying ''Universitario''. Certain non-officially approved and accredited study programmes may acquire a positive reputation. However, neither professional associations, government agencies, judiciary authorities, nor universities – other than the study programme provider – are obliged to recognize non-official qualifications in any way. 2. Accreditation system University-taught study programme accreditation is granted through the

National Agency for Quality Assessment and Accreditation The National Agency for Quality Assessment and Accreditation (, ANECA) is the authorised agency of the Spanish government whose aim is to provide external quality assurance for the Spanish higher education system and to contribute to its constan ...

(ANECA), a government-dependent quality assurance and accreditation provider for the Spanish higher education system that ensures that the data held in the Register of Universities, Centres and Qualifications (RUCT), a national registry for universities and qualifications, is correct and up to date. All study programmes must be accredited by ANECA prior to their inclusion in the RUCT. The RUCT records all officially approved universities and their bachelor's degrees, master's degrees and PhDs and each and every one of the officially approved and accredited study programmes. Universities are assigned a specific number Code (''Código'') by the RUCT. The same study programme may acquire different codes as it progresses through various stages of official approval by local and central governments. Prospective students should check the RUCT Code awarded to the study programme of their interest at every stage of their enquiries concerning degrees in Spain. ANECA makes recommendations regarding procedures, staffing levels, quality of teaching, resources available to students and continuity or loss of accreditation. The ANECA Registry records all events in the life of an officially approved and accredited study programme or a university. The ANECA Registry Search Facility may be the simplest and safest way to verify the status of all officially approved and accredited study programmes in Spain. It is also possible to track qualifications by using the search facility that several Autonomous Communities' own accreditation agencies offer. These agencies work within the ANECA framework and generally show more detailed information about the study programmes available in each territory (e.g., Catalonia, Madrid, etc.) 3. Qualifications framework for higher education The qualifications framework for higher education MECES is the reference framework adopted in Spain in order to structure degree levels. Not all universities offer degrees named exactly the same, even if they have similar academic and professional effects. Each university may present proposals for the study programme considered to meet professional and academic demand. The proposal will consist of a report linking the study programme being considered and the proposed qualification to be awarded. This report will be assessed by ANECA and sent for the Consejo de Universidades Españolas. If the ''Consejo'' agrees with ANECA's approval, it will be included in the RUCT and ANECA registries. 4. Spanish qualifications and their professional effects. All bachelor's and master's degrees accredited by ANECA bestow full academic and professional rights in accordance with new and previous laws. Professional-practice law in Spain is currently under revision.

Sweden

Switzerland

Before the

, the academic degree of a Licentiate was reached after 4 or 5 years of study. Depending on the official language of the university, it was called ''Lizentiat'' (German), ''Licence'' (French) or ''licenza'' (Italian) and, according to the Bologna reform, is today considered equivalent to a

. A Licentiate with a predefined qualification gave access to the last stage of a further two or more years of studies (depending on the field) for a

. Apart from this, most universities offered a

requiring up to two years of study. French-speaking universities called them ''diplôme d'études approfondies'' DEA or DESS, the Italian-speaking university ''post laurea'' and German-speaking universities mostly ''Nachdiplomstudium'' (NDS). Today the federal legislation defines these postgraduate diplomas (60 ECTS credits) as

Master of Advanced Studies A Master of Advanced Studies (MASt or MAS), or Master of Advanced Study, is a postgraduate degree awarded in various countries. Master of Advanced Studies programs may be non-consecutive programs tailored for "specific groups of working professio ...

(MAS) or Executive Master of Business Administration (EMBA) degrees. Universities may also offer the possibility to gain a diploma in advanced studies (DAS, less than 60 ECTS credits). These degrees do not normally give access to a doctoral programme.

United Kingdom

= England, Wales and Northern Ireland

= An academic degree is protected under UK law. All valid UK degrees are awarded by universities or other degree-awarding bodies whose powers to do so are recognised by the UK government; hence they are known as "recognised bodies". The standard first degree in England, Northern Ireland and Wales is the

conferred with honours. Usually this is a Bachelor of Arts (BA) or a Bachelor of Science (BSc) degree. Other variants exist: for example, Bachelor of Education or

. It usually takes three years to read for a bachelor's degree. The honours are usually categorised into four classes: * First class honours (1st). * Second class honours, divided into: ** Upper division or upper second (2:1). ** Lower division or lower second (2:2). * Third class honours (3rd). Candidates who have not achieved the standard for the award of honours may be admitted without honours to the "ordinary" bachelor's degree if they have met the required standard for this lesser qualification (also referred to as a "pass degree"). Standard levels for each of these classes are 70%+ for a first, 60–69% for a 2:1, 50–59% for a 2:2, 40–49% for a 3rd and 30%+ for a pass degree, although this can vary by institution (e.g. the

Open University The Open University (OU) is a Public university, public research university and the largest university in the United Kingdom by List of universities in the United Kingdom by enrolment, number of students. The majority of the OU's undergraduate ...

). The

foundation degree A foundation degree is a combined academic and vocational qualification in higher education in the United Kingdom, equivalent to two-thirds of an honours bachelor's degree. Foundation degrees were introduced by the Department for Education and ...

is a qualification, lower than bachelor's level, awarded following a two-year programme of study that is usually vocational in nature. The foundation degree can be awarded by a university or college of higher education that has been granted foundation-degree-awarding powers by the UK government. This degree is comparable to an

associate degree An associate degree or associate's degree is an undergraduate degree awarded after a course of post-secondary study lasting two to three years. It is a level of academic qualification above a high school diploma and below a bachelor's degree ...

in the United States. The universities of Oxford and Cambridge award honorary Master of Arts (MA) degrees to graduates of their bachelor's programmes, following a specified period of time. This is comparable to the practice of the ancient universities in Scotland awarding an MA for a first degree and arguably reflects the rigorous standards expected of their graduates.

Master's degrees A master's degree (from Latin ) is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities or colleges upon completion of a course of study demonstrating mastery or a high-order overview of a specific field of study or area of professional prac ...

such as Master of Arts or Master of Science are typically awarded to students who have undertaken at least a year of full-time postgraduate study, which may require study and involve an element of research. Degrees such as Master of Philosophy (MPhil) or Master of Letters/Literature (MLitt) are likely to be awarded for postgraduate study involving original research. A student undertaking a master's would normally be expected to already hold a bachelor's degree in a relevant subject, hence the possibility of reaching the master's level in one year. Some universities award a master's as a first degree following an integrated programme of study (an 'integrated master's degree'). These degrees are usually designated by the subject, such as

for engineering, Master of Physics for physics, Master of Mathematics for mathematics and so on; it usually takes four years to read for them. Graduation to these degrees is always with honours. Master of Engineering in particular has now become the standard first degree in engineering at the top UK universities, replacing the older Bachelor of Engineering. Master's degrees are often graded as: * Distinction * Merit * Pass The Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree is highly valued by those seeking to advance in business as managers and decision makers. Doctoral degrees or

s, such as the Doctor of Philosophy degree (PhD or DPhil) or Doctor of Education (EdD or DEd), are awarded following a programme of original research that contributes new knowledge within the context of the student's discipline. Doctoral degrees usually take three years full-time. Therefore, in the UK it may only take seven years to progress from undergraduate to earning a doctorate – in some cases six, since having a master's is not always a precondition for embarking on a doctoral degree. This contrasts with nine years in the United States, reflecting differences in the educational systems. Some doctorates, such as the Doctor of Clinical Psychology (DClinPsy) qualification, confirm competence to practice in particular professions. There are also higher doctorates – Doctor of Science (DSc) and Doctor of Letters/Literature (DLitt) — that are typically awarded to experienced academics who have demonstrated a high level of achievement in their academic career; for example, they may have published widely on their subject or become professors in their fields. UK post-secondary qualifications are defined at different levels, with levels 1–3 denoting further education and levels 4–8 denoting higher education. Within this structure, a foundation degree is at level 5; a bachelor's degree at level 6; a master's degree at level 7; and a doctoral degree at level 8. Full information about the expectations for different types of UK degrees is published by the

Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education The Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education (usually referred to simply as the Quality Assurance Agency or QAA) is the United Kingdom higher education sector's independent expert quality body. It has a remit to maintain and enhance the qu ...

and

British degree abbreviations Degree abbreviations are used as an alternative way to specify an academic degree instead of spelling out the title in full, such as in reference books such as ''Who's Who'' and on business cards. Many degree titles have more than one possible abb ...

= Scotland

= The standard first degree for students studying arts or humanities in

Scotland Scotland is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. It contains nearly one-third of the United Kingdom's land area, consisting of the northern part of the island of Great Britain and more than 790 adjac ...

is either a

or a

(the latter traditionally awarded by the

Ancient Universities of Scotland The ancient universities of Scotland () are medieval universities, medieval and renaissance universities that continue to exist in the present day. Together, the four universities are the List of oldest universities in continuous operation, ol ...

for a first degree in an arts/humanities subject). The standard undergraduate degree for natural and social science subjects is the

. Students can work towards a first degree at either ordinary or honours level. A general or ordinary degree (BA/MA or BSc) takes three years to complete; an honours degree (BA/MA Hons or BSc Hons) takes four years. The ordinary degree need not be in a specific subject, but can involve study across a range of subjects within (and sometimes beyond) the relevant faculty, in which case it may also be called a general degree. If a third year or junior honours subject is included, the ordinary degree in that named discipline is awarded. The honours degree involves two years of study at a sub-honours level in which a range of subjects within the relevant faculty are studied and then two years of study at honours level which is specialised in a single field (for example classics, history, chemistry, biology, etc.). Not all universities in Scotland adhere to this; in some, one studies in several subjects within a faculty for three years and can then specialise in two areas and attain a joint honours degree in fourth year. This also reflects the broader scope of the final years of Scottish secondary education, where traditionally five Highers are studied, compared to (typically) three English or Welsh

A-Levels The A-level (Advanced Level) is a subject-based qualification conferred as part of the General Certificate of Education, as well as a school leaving qualification offered by the educational bodies in the United Kingdom and the educational ...

. The Higher is a one-year qualification, as opposed to the two years of A-Levels, which accounts for Scottish honours degrees being a year longer than those in England. Advanced Highers add an optional final year of secondary education, bringing students up to the level of their A-Level counterparts – students with strong A-Levels or Advanced Highers may be offered entry directly into the second year at Scottish universities. Honours for MA or bachelor's degrees are classified into three classes: * First class honours * Second class honours, divided into: ** Division one (2:1) pper Second Class Honours** Division two (2:2) ower Second Class Honours* Third class honours Students who complete all the requirements for an honours degree, but who do not receive sufficient merit to be awarded third-class honours, may be awarded a ''Special Degree'' (ordinary degree – bachelor's level SCQF Level 9). In most respects, the criteria for awarding qualifications at honours level and above are the same as in the rest of the UK (see above under England, Wales and Northern Ireland). Postgraduate qualifications are not designated Master of Arts, as in the rest of the UK, as this is an undergraduate degree. Postgraduate degrees in arts and humanities subjects are usually designated

Master of Letters A Master of Letters degree (MLitt or LittM; Latin ' or ') is a postgraduate degree. Ireland Trinity College Dublin and Maynooth University offer MLitt degrees. Trinity has offered them the longest, owing largely to its tradition as Ireland's ...

(M.Litt.) or, in natural and social sciences,

(M.Sc.). Non-doctoral postgraduate research degrees are usually designated

Master of Philosophy A Master of Philosophy (MPhil or PhM; Latin ' or ') is a postgraduate degree. The name of the degree is most often abbreviated MPhil (or, at times, as PhM in other countries). MPhil are awarded to postgraduate students after completing at leas ...

(M.Phil.) or Master of Research (M.Res.). The postgraduate teaching qualification is the Postgraduate Diploma in Education (PGDE). Postgraduate qualifications are classified into four classes: * Distinction * Credit * Merit * Pass

North America

Canada

In Canada, education is the responsibility of the provinces and territories, rather than the federal government. However, all of Canada follows the three-level bachelor's-master's-doctorate system common to the Anglophone world, with a few variations. A common framework for degrees was agreed between the provinces and territories in 2007. Bachelor's degrees take normally three to four years, more commonly three years in Quebec (where they follow on from college courses rather than directly from secondary education). Outside Quebec, three-year bachelor's degrees are normally ordinary degrees, while four-year bachelor's degrees are

s; an honours degree is normally needed for further study at the master's level. Master's degrees take one to three years (in Quebec they normally take one and a half to two years). Doctorates take a minimum of three years. Alone among Canadian provinces and territories, British Columbia offers two-year

s, allowing credit to be transferred into a four-year bachelor's program. In Canada,

first professional degree A professional degree, formerly known in the US as a first professional degree, is a degree that prepares someone to work in a particular profession, practice, or industry sector often meeting the academic requirements for licensure or accreditatio ...

s such as DDS, MD, PharmD and LLB or JD are considered bachelor's level qualifications, despite their often being named as if they were doctorates.

= Quebec

= In the province of

Quebec Quebec is Canada's List of Canadian provinces and territories by area, largest province by area. Located in Central Canada, the province shares borders with the provinces of Ontario to the west, Newfoundland and Labrador to the northeast, ...

, the majority of students must attend

prior to entering university. Upon completion of a two-year pre-university program, such as in sciences or humanities, or a three-year technical program, such as nursing or computer science, college graduates obtain a '' college diploma'', which is a prerequisite for access to university-level studies. Although these college programs are typical, they are not offered in every institution in the province. Moreover, while a few other pre-university programs with various concentrations exist, many other technical/career programs are available, depending on the college of choice. For example, Dawson College in

Montreal Montreal is the List of towns in Quebec, largest city in the Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Quebec, the List of the largest municipalities in Canada by population, second-largest in Canada, and the List of North American cit ...

has nearly sixty different programs leading to a college diploma. Special programs, such as physical rehabilitation therapy, are offered in some colleges as well. These programs allow students to enter professional university programs, such as

physiotherapy Physical therapy (PT), also known as physiotherapy, is a healthcare profession, as well as the care provided by physical therapists who promote, maintain, or restore health through patient education, physical intervention, disease preventio ...

(which consists of an integrated Bachelor of Science in Physiotherapy and Master of Physical Therapy), without having to meet the usual grade and course prerequisites required from students holding a pre-university science diploma. A similar option is offered for college nursing graduates as they can pursue their studies in university to obtain a Bachelor of Nursing in two years (rather than the usual three or four years, depending on whether the student has completed a college diploma in Quebec). Additionally, whereas aspiring medical students are usually required to complete an

undergraduate degree An undergraduate degree (also called first degree or simply degree) is a colloquial term for an academic degree earned by a person who has completed undergraduate courses. In the United States, it is usually offered at an institution of higher ed ...

before applying to medical schools, Quebec college graduates have the option to enter: * a "medical preparatory" year at

McGill University McGill University (French: Université McGill) is an English-language public research university in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Founded in 1821 by royal charter,Frost, Stanley Brice. ''McGill University, Vol. I. For the Advancement of Learning, ...

or and then pursue medical studies for the following four years; * directly into the undergraduate medical education program at

Université Laval (; English: ''Laval University)'' is a public research university in Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. The university traces its roots to the Séminaire de Québec, founded by François de Montmorency-Laval in 1663, making it the oldest institutio ...

(4 to 5 years in duration) or (4 years in duration).

Mexico

Education in

Mexico Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a country in North America. It is the northernmost country in Latin America, and borders the United States to the north, and Guatemala and Belize to the southeast; while having maritime boundar ...

follows a three-degree system similar to that of Canada and the US. The pre-university academic level is the ''bachillerato'' (also called ''preparatoria''), similar to

high school A secondary school, high school, or senior school, is an institution that provides secondary education. Some secondary schools provide both ''lower secondary education'' (ages 11 to 14) and ''upper secondary education'' (ages 14 to 18), i.e., ...

. Students typically leave preparatoria at the age of 18 for university, at which point they choose to specialize in a specific academic area (a ''carrera''), such as economics, business administration, sciences, law, engineering or medicine, for 8–10 semesters of full-time study, which typically takes 4–5 years. They study for a ''técnico superior universitario'' (associate degree, only half of the ''licenciatura'', with the possibility of finishing a full bachelor's degree later, mainly in fields such as engineering and computer sciences), or a ''licenciatura'' (bachelor), then a ''maestría'' (master), then a ''doctorado'' (doctorate). They can also get the degree of "ingenieria" or "medico" as an engineer or MD, respectively. After receiving the ''licenciatura'', students may take extra courses called ''diplomados'' (similar to a

certification Certification is part of testing, inspection and certification and the provision by an independent body of written assurance (a certificate) that the product, service or system in question meets specific requirements. It is the formal attestatio ...

but issued by a university). These courses last 4–12 months and are a means to further study without continuing to the next degree level, and are usually to demonstrate that students are staying up-to-date in their fields. Most students stay at this level, but some choose to continue to the ''maestría'', equivalent to the

. Study at the ''maestría'' level takes 1–3 years and mandates completion of a

thesis A thesis (: theses), or dissertation (abbreviated diss.), is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the author's research and findings.International Standard ISO 7144: D ...

. Post-graduate students in Mexico typically enter a master's program after a few years in the workforce and often continue working while studying. Traditionally, students who have completed the ''maestria'' may continue on to the ''doctorado'' or the

. Doctoral study typically lasts 3–4 years. In recent years this schemes has become flexible such that in some PhD programmes, students are accepted before, or not completing, the course of study for a master's.

United States

In the United States, since the late 19th century, the threefold degree system of bachelor's, master's, and doctorate has been in place but has evolved into a slightly different pattern from the European equivalent. The

U.S. Department of Education The United States Department of Education is a United States Cabinet, cabinet-level department of the federal government of the United States, United States government, originating in 1980. The department began operating on May 4, 1980, havin ...

now classifies degrees in six categories:

master's degrees A master's degree (from Latin ) is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities or colleges upon completion of a course of study demonstrating mastery or a high-order overview of a specific field of study or area of professional prac ...

, intermediate graduate qualifications and

research doctorate A doctorate (from Latin ''doctor'', meaning "teacher") or doctoral degree is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities and some other educational institutions, derived from the ancient formalism '' licentia docendi'' ("licence to teach ...

s. The standard academic progression remains bachelor's—master's—(research) doctorate. Most standard ''academic'' programs are based on the four-year bachelor's degree, most often

(B.A.) or

(B.S.), a one- or two-year master's degree (most often

(M.A.) or

(M.S.); either of these programs might be as long as three years in length) and a further two to five years of coursework and research, culminating in "comprehensive" examinations in one or more fields, plus perhaps some teaching experience and then the writing of a dissertation for the doctorate, for a total of ten or more years from starting the bachelor's degree (which is usually begun around age 18) to the awarding of the doctorate. This timetable is only approximate, however, as students in accelerated programs can sometimes earn a bachelor's degree in three years or, on the other hand, a particular dissertation project might take four or more years to complete. In addition, a graduate may wait an indeterminate time between degrees before candidacy in the next level or even an additional degree at a level already completed. Therefore, there is no time limit on the accumulation of academic degrees. By far the most common research doctorate is the

(Ph.D.), comprising 98.1% of research doctorates in 2014. The

Doctor of Education Doctor, Doctors, The Doctor or The Doctors may refer to: Titles and occupations * Physician, a medical practitioner * Doctor (title), an academic title for the holder of a doctoral-level degree ** Doctorate ** List of doctoral degrees awarded ...

(Ed.D.) made up 1.1% (not including Ed.D.s classified as professional degrees rather than research doctorates) and all other research doctorates were less than 1% in total. Some schools, mostly

junior college A junior college is a type of post-secondary institution that offers vocational and academic training that is designed to prepare students for either skilled trades and technical occupations or support roles in professions such as engineering, a ...

s and

community college A community college is a type of undergraduate higher education institution, generally leading to an associate degree, certificate, or diploma. The term can have different meanings in different countries: many community colleges have an open enr ...

s and some four-year schools, offer an

that takes two full years of study. These may be in professional or academic fields, and the most common awards are the Associate of Arts (A.A.) and Associate of Science (A.S.) degrees. Articulation agreements may allow credit earned on an associate degree to be counted toward the completion of a bachelor's degree. The "

" is a graduate-level degree program designed to prepare graduates for professional practice in various fields other than academic scholarship and research. First professional degrees require a minimum of two years of college-level education prior to entering the program and a minimum of six years of total college-level education (including that undertaken prior to entry) to complete the program. Most professional degree programs require a prior bachelor's degree for admission and many require seven or eight years of total study. Many first professional degrees, e.g.

M.D. A Doctor of Medicine (abbreviated MD, from the Latin ) is a medical degree, the meaning of which varies between different jurisdictions. In the United States, and some other countries, the ''MD'' denotes a professional degree of physician. This ge ...

, J.D. or

D.O. Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (DO or D.O., or in Australia DO USA) is a medical degree conferred by the 38 osteopathic medical schools in the United States. DO and Doctor of Medicine (MD) degrees are equivalent: a DO graduate may become lice ...

are named as doctorates but should not be confused with research doctorates such as the Ph.D. (or, in law, the S.J.D.). First professional degrees should also not be confused with professional master's degrees such as the M.Arch. and M.B.A., which are classified as master's degrees, or with intermediate graduate qualifications that also bear the title of doctor, such as D.Min. or D.Psy. Intermediate graduate qualifications lie between the master's level and doctorate. They include awards such as the

Certificate of Advanced Study A Certificate of Advanced Study (CAS), also called an Advanced Certificate (AC), Certificate of Advanced Graduate Study (CAGS), or a Certificate of Advanced Professional Studies (CAPS), is a post-Master's academic certificate designed for profession ...

, Graduate Diplomas,

Professional Engineer A professional is a member of a profession or any person who works in a specified professional activity. The term also describes the standards of education and training that prepare members of the profession with the particular knowledge and ski ...

status, and Professional Diplomas, as well as

s such as Education Specialist,

Doctor of Ministry The Doctor of Ministry (DMin) is a doctorate in religious ministry. It often includes an original research component, and may be earned by a minister of religion while concurrently engaged in ministry. It is categorized as an advanced doctoral de ...

Doctor of Psychology The Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D. or D.Psych.) is a professional doctoral degree intended to prepare graduates for careers that apply scientific knowledge of psychology and deliver empirically based service to individuals, groups and organization ...

and the

Licentiate in Sacred Theology Licentiate in Sacred Theology (; abbreviated LTh or STL) is the second of three ecclesiastical degrees in theology (the first being the Baccalaureate in Sacred Theology and the third being the Doctorate in Sacred Theology) which are conferred ...

. In 21 US jurisdictions, religious institutions can be authorized to grant religious-exempt (rel. exmpt., rel. expt., etc.) degrees without accreditation or government oversight. Such degrees are used primarily to attain church-related employment.

= Current levels of attainment of degrees

= Traditionally, more men than women attended and earned degrees at the world's universities. A milestone was reached in the United States, according to the 2010 census, as women surpassed men in attaining master's degrees, for the first time. The U.S. census reports that 10.5 million men have master's degrees or higher, compared with 10.6 million women. The first year that women surpassed men in earning bachelor's degrees was 1996.

= Perceptions of the value of a degree in the US

= Students, the media, and the general public have shown much concern over the value of getting a higher degree in the US ever since the Great Recession of 2007. A 2015 survey of 2,000 adults (900 of which were graduates), implemented by the education technology company Greenwood Hall, reported that more than half of the graduates surveyed believe those getting their degree now will be receiving a lower return on their investment than their counterparts 10–15 years ago. Media coverage of the rising costs of higher education and increased student debt have also affected the public's perceptions of whether higher degrees are still worthwhile. Statistics citing that college graduates make around $1 million more in their lifetimes than those who did not attend college and live longer, healthier lives work in favor of those who argue the continued value of higher degrees. Studies like the 2011 Learning Gains study by Arum and Roksa, on the other hand, reported that only 55% of students had any learning gains during their first two years of college, which favors the argument that investing in higher education may not still be worth it.

Oceania

Australia

The

Australian Qualifications Framework The Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) specifies the standards for educational qualifications in Australia. It is administered nationally by the Australian Government's Department of Education, with oversight from the States and Terri ...

(AQF) covers 10 levels, of which levels 6–10 correspond to academic degrees. These are: the ''

'' (level 6), which normally takes 2 years; the ''

bachelor degree A bachelor's degree (from Medieval Latin ''baccalaureus'') or baccalaureate (from Modern Latin ''baccalaureatus'') is an undergraduate degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to six years (d ...

'' (level 7), which normally takes 3 years; the '' bachelor honours degree'' (level 8), which normally takes 1 year after the bachelor's degree and is mostly taken as an optional extension year, depending on the discipline; the ''master degree'' (level 9), which normally takes 1–2 years for "research" or "coursework" degrees and 3–4 years for an "extended" degree and follows on from either a bachelor or honours degree; and the ''

'' (level 10), which normally takes 3–4 years following on from a master's degree or a Class I or IIa honours qualification. Also included within the higher education system are: diplomas at level 5 (first year of a degree course); advanced diplomas, at level 6 (associate degree level); and graduate certificates and graduate diplomas, both of which are at level 8 (honours degree level). In Australia, most degrees are issued ungraded, with bachelor's degrees with honours being the exception. Categories of honours degrees are: * First Class Honours (H1 or I; overall mark of 80% and above); * Second Class Honours – A Division (H2A or IIA; overall mark of 74% to 79%); * Second Class Honours – B Division (H2B or IIB; overall mark of 70% to 74%); * Third Class Honours (H3 or III; overall mark of 65% to 69%). Lower marks do not qualify for honours, but yield a bachelor's degree at: * Pass (P: overall mark of 50% to 64%); * Fail (N or Failed: overall mark of 49% and below). Doctorates in Australia may be research doctorates (normally titled

s), professional doctorates (normally titled to refer to the field of practice, e.g.

Doctor of Engineering The Doctor of Engineering (DEng or EngD) or Doctor of Engineering Sciences is a research doctorate in engineering and applied science. An EngD is a terminal degree similar to a PhD in engineering but applicable more in industry rather than in ac ...

) or higher doctorates (also normally titled to refer to the field of practice). Extended master's degrees are also allowed to have the word 'doctor' in their title if they are in certain fields, but they are not doctoral degrees.

New Zealand

Like Australia, New Zealand has a 10-level qualifications framework (the New Zealand Qualifications Framework – NZQF) and a referencing exercise has found a one-to-one correspondence between the levels of the two frameworks. However, the names given to qualifications at different levels are not the same and New Zealand does not have associate degrees, thus only levels 7–10 correspond to academic degrees. These are the

(level 7), bachelor honours degree (level 8),

(level 9) and the

(level 10). In addition to these, the NZQF has certificates across levels 1–6, diplomas at levels 5 and 6, graduate certificates and graduate diplomas at level 7 (bachelor's), and postgraduate certificates and

s at level 8 (honours). Another referencing exercise, comparing the NZQF to the 10-level Irish National Framework for Qualifications, found that degrees were comparable but that further work was needed to improve compatibility at the sub-degree levels (1–6). Non-degree qualifications at levels 7–9 were not included in the study. In New Zealand, master's degrees may be awarded with classified honours (1st, 2:1, 2:2, 3rd) or with distinction or merit.

South America

Argentina

Brazil

Undergraduate students in Brazilian universities graduate either with a bachelor's degree, a licentiate degree or a technologist degree. Bachelor degrees in Brazil normally take four or five years of full-time study to complete, with the exception of the human medicine course, which requires six years. Licentiate degrees normally take four-years, and are for students who want to qualify as

school A school is the educational institution (and, in the case of in-person learning, the Educational architecture, building) designed to provide learning environments for the teaching of students, usually under the direction of teachers. Most co ...

teachers. ''Licenciatura'' courses exist mostly in mathematics, humanities and natural sciences. The technologist degree is available in technology-related fields and can be normally obtained in three years. These degrees are for entry into industry. Admission as an undergraduate student to most top public or private universities in Brazil requires that the applicant pass a competitive entrance examination known as the

Vestibular The Vestibular (from , "entrance hall") is a competitive examination and is the primary and widespread entrance system used by Brazilian universities to select the students admitted. The Vestibular usually takes place from November to January, ...

. Contrary to what happens in the United States, candidates must declare their intended university major when they register for the Vestibular. Although it is theoretically possible to switch majors afterwards (in a process known within the universities as ''transferência interna''), that is actually quite rare in Brazil. Undergraduate curricula tend to be more rigid than in the United States and there is little room to take classes outside one's major. Individuals who hold either a bachelor's degree, licentiate or technologist are eligible for admission into graduate courses leading to advanced

master Master, master's or masters may refer to: Ranks or titles In education: *Master (college), head of a college *Master's degree, a postgraduate or sometimes undergraduate degree in the specified discipline *Schoolmaster or master, presiding office ...

's or doctor's degrees. Criteria for admission into master's and doctor's programs vary in Brazil. Some universities require that candidates take entrance exams; others make admission decisions based solely on undergraduate transcripts, letters of recommendation and possibly oral interviews. In most cases, however, especially for the doctorate, the candidate is required to submit a research plan, and one faculty member must agree to serve as supervisor before the candidate can be admitted into the program. The exceptions are the

natural sciences Natural science or empirical science is one of the branches of science concerned with the description, understanding and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer ...

post-graduate programs, which accept students with very broad or vague research prospects that sometimes the prospect is given ''in promptu'' during the interview, preferring to let the students define their study program and advisor in the course of the first year of studies. There are two types of post-graduate programs: ''lato sensu'' (specialization and MBAs) and ''stricto sensu'' (professional master's, master's, and doctorate). Specializations or MBAs are courses that include taking a minimum number of graduate classes (minimum of 360 hours) but with no need to do research nor defend a thesis, only to present final work showing knowledge acquired. It is a professional level where theory and practice are focused broadly. Professional master's or master's degrees usually take one to two years of full-time study. Requirements for an academic master's degree include taking a minimum number of advanced graduate classes (typically between five and eight) and submitting a research thesis, which is examined orally by a panel of at least two examiners (three is the preferred number), sometimes including one member from another university or research institute. The emphasis of the thesis must be in adding some value to knowledge, but not necessarily in being original. Doctoral degrees normally take four additional years of full-time study to complete. Requirements for obtaining a doctor's degree include taking additional advanced courses, passing an oral qualifying exam, and submitting a longer doctoral dissertation which must represent a significant original contribution to knowledge in the field to which the dissertation topic is related. That contrasts with master's thesis, which, in addition to being usually shorter than doctoral dissertations, are not required to include creation of new knowledge or revision/reinterpretation of older views/theories. The doctoral dissertation is examined in a final oral exam before a panel of at least two members (in the state of São Paulo the preferred number is five, while the other regions prefer three members), usually including one or two external examiners from another university or research institute. Finally, a small number of Brazilian universities, most notably the public universities in the state of

São Paulo São Paulo (; ; Portuguese for 'Paul the Apostle, Saint Paul') is the capital of the São Paulo (state), state of São Paulo, as well as the List of cities in Brazil by population, most populous city in Brazil, the List of largest cities in the ...

, still award the title of (''free

docent The term "docent" is derived from the Latin word , which is the third-person plural present active indicative of ('to teach, to lecture'). Becoming a docent is often referred to as habilitation or doctor of science and is an academic qualifi ...

''), which is of higher standing than a doctorate and is obtained, similar to the German

, by the submission of a second (original or cumulative) thesis and approval in a ''Livre-Docência'' examination that includes giving a public lecture before a panel of full professors. ''See also

Universities and Higher Education in Brazil Brazil adopts a mixed system of public and privately funded universities. Public universities can be federally funded or financed by State governments (such as USP, Unicamp and Unesp in the State of São Paulo). Private schools can be for-profit ...

Colombia

In Colombia, the system of academic degrees is based in the British model, similar to the U.S. model. After completing their "bachillerato" (high school), students can take one of three options. The first one is called a (professional career), which is similar to a bachelor's degree requiring from four to 6 years of study according to the chosen program. The other option is called a (technician); this degree consists of two and a half years of study and prepares the student for technical or mechanical labors. Finally, the third option is called a (equivalent to associate degree) and consists of three years of study. After this, students, now called (professionals), (technicians) or (associates), can opt for higher degrees. Formal education after the bachelor's degree leads to the master's degree with the title of and doctorate degrees, known as (doctorate). The master's degree normally takes two years. Students also can take a specialization course, , equivalent to a graduate certificate degree, after their bachelor's degree. These programs, like in the U.S., are very popular, because it requires only one to two years of study. In Colombia, similar to the U.S. system, the students may not go directly to the without having the "master" degree first.

Chile

After completing (high school), students receive a (high school diploma), which is a requirement for higher education. In Chile, there is a distinction between academic degrees and professional titles: * is the denomination given to an academic degree granted by a higher education institution recognized by the Chilean Mineduc (Ministry of Education). * is the denomination given to a professional title. Some professional titles are required for occupations such as physicians, attorneys and as civil/commercial engineers. A professional title may or may not require a , additional examination or work experience. For example, the (attorney) professional title is granted by the Chilean Supreme Court and requires an examination, academic degree and 6 months of pro-bono work experience. Among degrees, there are the following levels: * , undergraduate degree obtained by completing a 2-year . * , undergraduate degree obtained as a 4+ year . Equivalent to a bachelor's degree. * , graduate degree, requiring a degree or equivalent. Equivalent to a master's degree. * , a doctoral degree, often requiring a degree or equivalent. Higher-education programs that provide a professional title but not an academic degree are referred to as , which are similar in duration and scope to associate degree programs. These are often granted by educational institutions of the type (IP) or (CFT).

Venezuela

Academic degrees in Venezuela start with the ''Certificado de Educación Básica'' (Certificate of Basic Education), awarded upon completing the 9th grade. The next degree is earned upon completing the 11th grade and confers the title of ''Bachiller en Ciencias'' (High School Graduate of Science), ''Bachiller en Humanidades'' (High School Graduate of Humanities) or ''Técnico en Ciencias'' (Science Technician). The reason for this diversity is because some schools provide vocational education as part of their high school curriculum (thereby allowing them to hand out "technician" titles), while elsewhere the student is required to decide whether to study science or the humanities for the last two years of secondary school. Titles at the higher-education level usually depend on the institution handing them out. Technical schools award the student with the title of ''Técnico Superior Universitario'' (university higher technician, to distinguish from science technician). Universities award the student with the title of ''ingeniero'' (engineer) or with the title ''licenciado'' (licentiate) after completing a five-year program. The ingeniero degree requires more physics than the licenciado degree, but both take five years. Some higher-education institutions may award ''diplomados'' (diploma), but the time necessary to obtain one varies. Medical doctors are awarded the title "Médico Cirujano" after completing a 6-year course of study. Postgraduate education in Venezuela follows the conventions of the United States (being named "master's" and "doctorate" after the programs there).

Pontifical universities

Pontifical universities A pontifical university or athenaeum is an ecclesiastical university established or approved directly by the Holy See, composed of three main ecclesiastical faculties (Theology, Philosophy and canon law (Catholic Church), Canon Law) and at least o ...

around the world—such as the Pontifical University, St Patrick's College, Maynooth, in Ireland; the Pontifical and Royal University of Santo Tomas in

Manila Manila, officially the City of Manila, is the Capital of the Philippines, capital and second-most populous city of the Philippines after Quezon City, with a population of 1,846,513 people in 2020. Located on the eastern shore of Manila Bay on ...

;The direct competence of the Holy See applies only to the Ecclesiastical Faculties of Theology, Philosophy and Canon Law. The other sciences and arts degrees are under the competence of the Department of Education of the Philippine Republic.

Catholic University of America The Catholic University of America (CUA) is a private Catholic research university in Washington, D.C., United States. It is one of two pontifical universities of the Catholic Church in the United States – the only one that is not primarily a ...

, the

Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas The Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas (PUST), also known as the ''Angelicum'' or ''Collegio Angelico'' (in honor of its patron, the ''Doctor Angelicus'' Thomas Aquinas), is a pontifical university located in the historic center of R ...

, ''Angelicum'', in Rome; the University of Louvain (UCLouvain) in Belgium, and the

Pontifical Catholic University of Peru Pontifical Catholic University of Peru (, PUCP) is a private university in Lima, Peru. It was founded in 1917 with the support and approval of the Catholic church, being the oldest private institution of higher learning in the country. The Peru ...

depend for their status as pontifical universities, and for the nature of their academic degrees, on the

, through the

Congregation for Catholic Education The Congregation for Catholic Education (Institutes of Study) () was the pontifical congregation of the Roman Curia responsible for: universities, faculties, institutes and higher schools of study, either ecclesial or non-ecclesiastical depende ...

. The nature of academic degrees from ecclesiastical institutions of education is outlined in the

apostolic constitution An apostolic constitution () is the most solemn form of legislation issued by the Pope.New Commentary on the Code of Canon Law, pg. 57, footnote 36. By their nature, apostolic constitutions are addressed to the public. Generic constitutions use ...

''Sapientia Christiana''. In distinction to secular or Catholic universities, which are academic institutions for the study and teaching of a broad range of disciplines, ecclesiastical or

pontifical universities A pontifical university or athenaeum is an ecclesiastical university established or approved directly by the Holy See, composed of three main ecclesiastical faculties (Theology, Philosophy and canon law (Catholic Church), Canon Law) and at least o ...

"are usually composed of three principal ecclesiastical faculties: theology, philosophy, and canon law, as well as at least one other faculty. A pontifical university specifically addresses Christian revelation and disciplines correlative to the evangelical mission of the Church as set out in ''Sapientia christiana''." The core of degrees granted by pontifical universities consists of three levels: the first is the baccalaureate; the second is the licentiate; the third is the

. From this core pontifical universities confer specific degrees, including: Theology * Baccalaureate in Sacred Theology, ''Sacrae Theologiae Baccalaureatus'' (S.T.B.) * Licentiate in Sacred Theology, ''Sacrae Theologiae Licentiatus'' (S.T.L.) * Doctorate in Sacred Theology, ''Sacrae Theologiae Doctoratus'' (S.T.D.) Philosophy * Baccalaureate in Philosophy, ''Philosophiae Baccalaureatus'' (Ph.B.) * Licentiate in Philosophy, ''Philosophiae Licentiatus'' (Ph.L.) * Doctorate in Philosophy, ''Philosophiae Doctoratus'' (Ph.D.) Canon Law * Baccalaureate in Canon Law, ''Juris Canonici Baccalaureatus'' (J.C.B.) * Licentiate in Canon Law, ''Juris Canonici Licentiatus'' (J.C.L.) * Doctorate in Canon Law, ''Juris Canonici Doctoratus'' (J.C.D.)

References

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