Cholecystitis is

inflammation Inflammation (from ) is part of the biological response of body tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. The five cardinal signs are heat, pain, redness, swelling, and loss of function (Latin ''calor'', '' ...

of the

gallbladder In vertebrates, the gallbladder, also known as the cholecyst, is a small hollow Organ (anatomy), organ where bile is stored and concentrated before it is released into the small intestine. In humans, the pear-shaped gallbladder lies beneath t ...

. Symptoms include right upper

abdominal pain Abdominal pain, also known as a stomach ache, is a symptom associated with both non-serious and serious medical issues. Since the abdomen contains most of the body's vital organs, it can be an indicator of a wide variety of diseases. Given th ...

, pain in the right shoulder, nausea, vomiting, and occasionally fever. Often gallbladder attacks (biliary colic) precede acute cholecystitis. The pain lasts longer in cholecystitis than in a typical gallbladder attack. Without appropriate treatment, recurrent episodes of cholecystitis are common. Complications of acute cholecystitis include gallstone pancreatitis, common bile duct stones, or inflammation of the common bile duct. More than 90% of the time acute cholecystitis is caused from blockage of the

cystic duct The cystic duct is the duct that (typically) joins the gallbladder and the common hepatic duct; the union of the cystic duct and common hepatic duct forms the bile duct (formerly known as the common bile duct). Its length varies. Anatomy ...

by a

gallstone A gallstone is a stone formed within the gallbladder from precipitated bile components. The term cholelithiasis may refer to the presence of gallstones or to any disease caused by gallstones, and choledocholithiasis refers to the presence of ...

. Risk factors for gallstones include

birth control pills Oral contraceptives, abbreviated OCPs, also known as birth control pills, are medications taken by mouth for the purpose of birth control. The introduction of the birth control pill ("the Pill") in 1960 revolutionized the options for contraception, ...

pregnancy Pregnancy is the time during which one or more offspring gestation, gestates inside a woman's uterus. A multiple birth, multiple pregnancy involves more than one offspring, such as with twins. Conception (biology), Conception usually occurs ...

, a family history of gallstones,

obesity Obesity is a medical condition, considered by multiple organizations to be a disease, in which excess Adipose tissue, body fat has accumulated to such an extent that it can potentially have negative effects on health. People are classifi ...

diabetes Diabetes mellitus, commonly known as diabetes, is a group of common endocrine diseases characterized by sustained high blood sugar levels. Diabetes is due to either the pancreas not producing enough of the hormone insulin, or the cells of th ...

liver disease Liver disease, or hepatic disease, is any of many diseases of the liver. If long-lasting it is termed chronic liver disease. Although the diseases differ in detail, liver diseases often have features in common. Liver diseases File:Ground gla ...

, or rapid

weight loss Weight loss, in the context of medicine, health, or physical fitness, refers to a reduction of the total body mass, by a mean loss of fluid, body fat (adipose tissue), or lean mass (namely bone mineral deposits, muscle, tendon, and other conn ...

. Occasionally, acute cholecystitis occurs as a result of

vasculitis Vasculitis is a group of disorders that destroy blood vessels by inflammation. Both artery, arteries and veins are affected. Lymphangitis (inflammation of lymphatic vessels) is sometimes considered a type of vasculitis. Vasculitis is primarily c ...

chemotherapy Chemotherapy (often abbreviated chemo, sometimes CTX and CTx) is the type of cancer treatment that uses one or more anti-cancer drugs (list of chemotherapeutic agents, chemotherapeutic agents or alkylating agents) in a standard chemotherapy re ...

, or during recovery from

major trauma Major trauma is any injury that has the potential to cause prolonged disability or death. There are many causes of major trauma, blunt and penetrating, including falls, motor vehicle collisions, stabbing wounds, and gunshot wounds. Dependi ...

burn A burn is an injury to skin, or other tissues, caused by heat, electricity, chemicals, friction, or ionizing radiation (such as sunburn, caused by ultraviolet radiation). Most burns are due to heat from hot fluids (called scalding), soli ...

s. Cholecystitis is suspected based on symptoms and laboratory testing. Abdominal

ultrasound Ultrasound is sound with frequency, frequencies greater than 20 Hertz, kilohertz. This frequency is the approximate upper audible hearing range, limit of human hearing in healthy young adults. The physical principles of acoustic waves apply ...

is then typically used to confirm the diagnosis. Treatment is usually with laparoscopic gallbladder removal, within 24 hours if possible. Taking pictures of the bile ducts during the surgery is recommended. The routine use of

antibiotics An antibiotic is a type of antimicrobial substance active against bacteria. It is the most important type of antibacterial agent for fighting pathogenic bacteria, bacterial infections, and antibiotic medications are widely used in the therapy ...

is controversial. They are recommended if surgery cannot occur in a timely manner or if the case is complicated. Stones in the common bile duct can be removed before surgery by endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) or during surgery. Complications from surgery are rare. In people unable to have surgery, gallbladder drainage may be tried. About 10–15% of adults in the developed world have gallstones. Women more commonly have stones than men and they occur more commonly after age 40. Certain

ethnic group An ethnicity or ethnic group is a group of people with shared attributes, which they collectively believe to have, and long-term endogamy. Ethnicities share attributes like language, culture, common sets of ancestry, traditions, society, re ...

s are more often affected; for example, 48% of American Indians have gallstones. Of all people with stones, 1–4% have biliary colic each year. If untreated, about 20% of people with biliary colic develop acute cholecystitis. Once the gallbladder is removed outcomes are generally good. Without treatment, chronic cholecystitis may occur. The word is from

Greek Greek may refer to: Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...

, ''cholecyst-'' meaning "gallbladder" and ''-itis'' meaning "inflammation".

Signs and symptoms

Blausen 0428 Gallbladder-Liver-Pancreas Location

Most people with gallstones do not have symptoms. However, when a gallstone temporarily lodges in the cystic duct, they experience

biliary colic Biliary colic, also known as symptomatic cholelithiasis, a gallbladder attack or gallstone attack, is when a colic (sudden pain) occurs due to a gallstone temporarily blocking the cystic duct. Typically, the pain is in the right upper part of t ...

. Biliary colic is

in the right upper quadrant or epigastric region. It is episodic, occurring after eating greasy or fatty foods, and leads to nausea and/or vomiting.Greenberger N.J., Paumgartner G (2012). Chapter 311. Diseases of the Gallbladder and Bile Ducts. In Longo D.L., Fauci A.S., Kasper D.L., Hauser S.L., Jameson J, Loscalzo J (Eds), Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, 18e People with cholecystitis most commonly have symptoms of biliary colic before developing cholecystitis. The pain becomes severe and constant in cholecystitis. Nausea is common and vomiting occurs in 75% of people with cholecystitis.Friedman L.S. (2015). Liver, Biliary Tract, & Pancreas Disorders. In Papadakis M.A., McPhee S.J., Rabow M.W. (Eds), Current Medical Diagnosis & Treatment 2015 In addition to abdominal pain, right shoulder pain can be present. On physical examination, an inflamed gallbladder is almost always tender to the touch and palpable (~25-50% of cases) in the midclavicular right lower rib margin. Additionally, a fever is common. Pain with deep inspiration leading to termination of the breath while pressing on the right upper quadrant of the abdomen usually causes severe pain ( Murphy's sign). Yellowing of the skin (jaundice) may occur but is often mild. Severe jaundice suggests another cause of symptoms such as

choledocholithiasis Common bile duct stone, also known as choledocholithiasis, is the presence of gallstones in the common bile duct (CBD) (thus '' choledocho-'' + '' lithiasis''). This condition can cause jaundice and liver cell damage. Treatments include choledocho ...

. People who are old, have

, chronic illness, or who are immunocompromised may have vague symptoms that may not include fever or localized tenderness.

Complications

A number of complications may occur from cholecystitis if not detected early or properly treated. Signs of complications include high fever, shock and

jaundice Jaundice, also known as icterus, is a yellowish or, less frequently, greenish pigmentation of the skin and sclera due to high bilirubin levels. Jaundice in adults is typically a sign indicating the presence of underlying diseases involving ...

. Complications include the following: *

Gangrene Gangrene is a type of tissue death caused by a lack of blood supply. Symptoms may include a change in skin color to red or black, numbness, swelling, pain, skin breakdown, and coolness. The feet and hands are most commonly affected. If the ga ...

* Gallbladder rupture * Empyema *

Fistula In anatomy, a fistula (: fistulas or fistulae ; from Latin ''fistula'', "tube, pipe") is an abnormal connection (i.e. tube) joining two hollow spaces (technically, two epithelialized surfaces), such as blood vessels, intestines, or other h ...

formation and gallstone ileus * Rokitansky-Aschoff sinuses

Gangrene and gallbladder rupture

Cholecystitis causes the gallbladder to become distended and firm. Distension can lead to decreased blood flow to the gallbladder, causing tissue death and eventually gangrene. Once tissue has died, the gallbladder is at greatly increased risk of rupture (perforation), which can cause sharp pain. Rupture can also occur in cases of chronic cholecystitis. Rupture is a rare but serious complication that leads to

abscess An abscess is a collection of pus that has built up within the tissue of the body, usually caused by bacterial infection. Signs and symptoms of abscesses include redness, pain, warmth, and swelling. The swelling may feel fluid-filled when pre ...

formation or

peritonitis Peritonitis is inflammation of the localized or generalized peritoneum, the lining of the inner wall of the abdomen and covering of the abdominal organs. Symptoms may include severe pain, swelling of the abdomen, fever, or weight loss. One pa ...

. Massive rupture of the gallbladder has a mortality rate of 30%.

Empyema

Untreated cholecystitis can lead to worsened inflammation and infected

bile Bile (from Latin ''bilis''), also known as gall, is a yellow-green/misty green fluid produced by the liver of most vertebrates that aids the digestion of lipids in the small intestine. In humans, bile is primarily composed of water, is pro ...

that can lead to a collection of pus inside the gallbladder, also known as empyema. The symptoms of empyema are similar to uncomplicated cholecystitis but greater severity: high fever, severe abdominal pain, more severely elevated white blood count.

Fistula formation and gallstone ileus

The inflammation of cholecystitis can lead to adhesions between the gallbladder and other parts of the

gastrointestinal tract The gastrointestinal tract (GI tract, digestive tract, alimentary canal) is the tract or passageway of the Digestion, digestive system that leads from the mouth to the anus. The tract is the largest of the body's systems, after the cardiovascula ...

, most commonly the

duodenum The duodenum is the first section of the small intestine in most vertebrates, including mammals, reptiles, and birds. In mammals, it may be the principal site for iron absorption. The duodenum precedes the jejunum and ileum and is the shortest p ...

. These adhesions can lead to the formation of direct connections between the gallbladder and gastrointestinal tract, called

fistula In anatomy, a fistula (: fistulas or fistulae ; from Latin ''fistula'', "tube, pipe") is an abnormal connection (i.e. tube) joining two hollow spaces (technically, two epithelialized surfaces), such as blood vessels, intestines, or other h ...

s. With these direct connections, gallstones can pass from the gallbladder to the intestines. Gallstones can get trapped in the gastrointestinal tract, most commonly at the connection between the small and large intestines (

ileocecal valve In many Animalia, including humans, an ileocolic structure or problem is something that concerns the region of the gastrointestinal tract from the ileum to the large intestine, colon. In Animalia that have cecum, ceca, the ileocecal region is a sub ...

). When a gallstone gets trapped, it can lead to an intestinal obstruction, called gallstone ileus, leading to abdominal pain, vomiting,

constipation Constipation is a bowel dysfunction that makes bowel movements infrequent or hard to pass. The Human feces, stool is often hard and dry. Other symptoms may include abdominal pain, bloating, and feeling as if one has not completely passed the ...

, and

abdominal distension Abdominal distension occurs when substances, such as air (gas) or fluid, accumulate in the abdomen causing its expansion. It is typically a symptom of an underlying disease or dysfunction in the body, rather than an illness in its own right. Peo ...

Causes

Cholecystitis occurs when the gallbladder becomes inflamed. Gallstones are the most common cause of gallbladder inflammation but it can also occur due to blockage from a tumor or scarring of the bile duct. The greatest risk factor for cholecystitis is gallstones. Risk factors for gallstones include female sex, increasing age, pregnancy, oral contraceptives, obesity, diabetes mellitus, ethnicity (Native North American), rapid weight loss.

Acute calculous cholecystitis

Gallstones blocking the flow of bile account for 90% of cases of cholecystitis (acute calculous cholecystitis). Blockage of bile flow leads to thickening and buildup of

causing an enlarged, red, and tense gallbladder. The gallbladder is initially

sterile Sterile or sterility may refer to: *Asepsis, a state of being free from biological contaminants * Sterile (archaeology), a sediment deposit which contains no evidence of human activity *Sterilization (microbiology), any process that eliminates or ...

but often becomes infected by bacteria, predominantly '' E. coli'', ''

Klebsiella ''Klebsiella'' is a genus of Gram-negative, oxidase-negative, rod-shaped bacteria with a prominent polysaccharide-based capsule. ''Klebsiella'' is named after German-Swiss microbiologist Edwin Klebs (1834–1913). Carl Friedlander described ' ...

'', ''

Streptococcus ''Streptococcus'' is a genus of gram-positive spherical bacteria that belongs to the family Streptococcaceae, within the order Lactobacillales (lactic acid bacteria), in the phylum Bacillota. Cell division in streptococci occurs along a sing ...

'', and ''

Clostridium ''Clostridium'' is a genus of anaerobic, Gram-positive bacteria. Species of ''Clostridium'' inhabit soils and the intestinal tracts of animals, including humans. This genus includes several significant human pathogens, including the causative ...

'' species. Inflammation can spread to the outer covering of the gallbladder and surrounding structures such as the diaphragm, causing referred right shoulder pain.

Acalculous cholecystitis

In acalculous cholecystitis, no stone is in the biliary ducts. It accounts for 5–10% of all cases of cholecystitis and is associated with high morbidity and mortality rates. Acalculous cholecystitis is typically seen in people who are hospitalized and critically ill. Males are more likely to develop acute cholecystitis following surgery in the absence of trauma. It is associated with many causes including

s. The presentation of acalculous cholecystitis is similar to calculous cholecystitis. Patients are more likely to have yellowing of the skin (jaundice) than in calculous cholecystitis. Ultrasonography or computed tomography often shows an immobile, enlarged gallbladder. Treatment involves immediate antibiotics and cholecystectomy within 24–72 hours.

Chronic cholecystitis

Chronic cholecystitis occurs after repeated episodes of acute cholecystitis and is almost always due to gallstones. Chronic cholecystitis may be asymptomatic, may present as a more severe case of acute cholecystitis, or may lead to a number of complications such as

gangrene Gangrene is a type of tissue death caused by a lack of blood supply. Symptoms may include a change in skin color to red or black, numbness, swelling, pain, skin breakdown, and coolness. The feet and hands are most commonly affected. If the ga ...

perforation A perforation is a small hole in a thin material or web. There is usually more than one perforation in an organized fashion, where all of the holes collectively are called a ''perforation''. The process of creating perforations is called perfor ...

, or

formation. Xanthogranulomatous cholecystitis (XGC) is a rare form of chronic cholecystitis which mimics gallbladder cancer although it is not cancerous. It was first reported in the medical literature in 1976 by McCoy and colleagues.

Mechanism

Blockage of the cystic duct by a gallstone causes a buildup of bile in the

and increased pressure within the gallbladder. Concentrated bile, pressure, and sometimes bacterial infection irritate and damage the gallbladder wall, causing inflammation and swelling of the gallbladder. Inflammation and swelling of the gallbladder can reduce normal blood flow to areas of the gallbladder, which can lead to

cell death Cell death is the event of a biological cell ceasing to carry out its functions. This may be the result of the natural process of old cells dying and being replaced by new ones, as in programmed cell death, or may result from factors such as di ...

due to inadequate oxygen.

Diagnosis

The diagnosis of cholecystitis is suggested by the history (abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, fever) and physical examinations in addition to laboratory and ultrasonographic testing. Boas's sign, which is pain in the area below the right scapula, can be a symptom of acute cholecystitis.

Blood tests

In someone suspected of having cholecystitis, blood tests are performed for markers of inflammation (e.g.

complete blood count A complete blood count (CBC), also known as a full blood count (FBC) or full haemogram (FHG), is a set of medical laboratory tests that provide cytometry, information about the cells in a person's blood. The CBC indicates the counts of white blo ...

C-reactive protein C-reactive protein (CRP) is an annular (ring-shaped) pentameric protein found in blood plasma, whose circulating concentrations rise in response to inflammation. It is an acute-phase protein of hepatic origin that increases following interleukin ...

), as well as

bilirubin Bilirubin (BR) (adopted from German, originally bili—bile—plus ruber—red—from Latin) is a red-orange compound that occurs in the normcomponent of the straw-yellow color in urine. Another breakdown product, stercobilin, causes the brown ...

levels in order to assess for bile duct blockage. Complete blood count typically shows an increased white blood count (12,000–15,000/mcL). C-reactive protein is usually elevated although not commonly measured in the United States. Bilirubin levels are often mildly elevated (1–4 mg/dL). If bilirubin levels are more significantly elevated, alternate or additional diagnoses should be considered such as gallstone blocking the common bile duct ( common bile duct stone). Less commonly, blood aminotransferases are elevated. The degree of elevation of these laboratory values may depend on the degree of inflammation of the gallbladder.

Imaging

Right upper quadrant abdominal ultrasound is most commonly used to diagnose cholecystitis. Ultrasound findings suggestive of acute cholecystitis include gallstones, pericholecystic fluid (fluid surrounding the gallbladder), gallbladder wall thickening (wall thickness over 3 mm), dilation of the bile duct, and sonographic Murphy's sign. Given its higher sensitivity, hepatic iminodiacetic acid (HIDA) scan can be used if ultrasound is not diagnostic.

CT scan A computed tomography scan (CT scan), formerly called computed axial tomography scan (CAT scan), is a medical imaging technique used to obtain detailed internal images of the body. The personnel that perform CT scans are called radiographers or ...

may also be used if complications such as perforation or gangrene are suspected. File:Ultrasonography of cholecystitis.jpg,

Abdominal ultrasonography Abdominal ultrasonography (also called abdominal ultrasound imaging or abdominal sonography) is a form of medical ultrasonography (medical application of ultrasound technology) to visualise abdominal anatomical structures. It uses transmission a ...

showing gallstones, wall thickening and fluid around the gall bladder File:Ultrasonography of sludge and gallstones, annotated.jpg, Gallstones and biliary sludge, but the gallbladder wall is not clearly thickened, with no edema in the pericholecystic fat, thus not cholecystitis. File:Pacutecholecystitits.png, Acute cholecystitis as seen on ultrasound. The closed arrow points to gallbladder wall thickening. Open arrow points to stones in the GB File:GBthick,GS,largeMark.png, Acute cholecystitis with gallbladder wall thickening, a large gallstone, and a large gallbladder File:UOTW 30 - Ultrasound of the Week 1.webm, Significant gallbladder wall thickening File:UOTW 30 - Ultrasound of the Week 2.webm, Significant gallbladder wall thickening

Histopathology

Histopathology Histopathology (compound of three Greek words: 'tissue', 'suffering', and '' -logia'' 'study of') is the microscopic examination of tissue in order to study the manifestations of disease. Specifically, in clinical medicine, histopatholog ...

is indicated if preoperative imaging and/or

gross examination Gross processing, "grossing" or "gross pathology" is the process by which pathology specimens undergo examination with the bare eye to obtain diagnosis, diagnostic information, as well as cutting and tissue sampling in order to prepare material fo ...

gives a suspicion of gallbladder cancer. File:Gross pathology of gallbladder carcinoma.jpg,

Gross examination Gross processing, "grossing" or "gross pathology" is the process by which pathology specimens undergo examination with the bare eye to obtain diagnosis, diagnostic information, as well as cutting and tissue sampling in order to prepare material fo ...

of gallbladder carcinoma, with a prominent nodule. File:Histopathology of gallbladder carcinoma.jpg,

of gallbladder carcinoma, with marked nuclear pleomorphism. File:Histopathology of eosinophilic cholecystitis.jpg, Histopathology of eosinophilic cholecystitis File:Gross pathology of cholesterolosis.jpg, Gross examination of gallbladder cholesterolosis, with yellow streaks of cholesterol deposition. File:Histopatholgoy of acute gangrenous cholecystitis.jpg, Histopathology of acute gangrenous cholecystitis, showing necrosis, neutrophils and partially sloughed off mucosa.

Differential diagnosis

Many other diagnoses can have similar symptoms as cholecystitis. Additionally the symptoms of chronic cholecystitis are commonly vague and can be mistaken for other diseases. These alternative diagnoses include but are not limited to: * Perforated peptic ulcer * Acute pancreatitis *

Liver abscess A liver abscess is a mass filled with pus inside the liver. Common causes are abdominal conditions such as appendicitis or diverticulitis due to haematogenous spread through the portal vein. It can also develop as a complication of a liver injury. ...

Pneumonia Pneumonia is an Inflammation, inflammatory condition of the lung primarily affecting the small air sacs known as Pulmonary alveolus, alveoli. Symptoms typically include some combination of Cough#Classification, productive or dry cough, ches ...

* Myocardial ischemia *

Hiatal hernia A hiatal hernia or hiatus hernia is a type of hernia in which abdominal organs (typically the stomach) slip through the diaphragm into the middle compartment of the chest. This may result in gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) or laryng ...

* Biliary colic *

Choledocholithiasis Common bile duct stone, also known as choledocholithiasis, is the presence of gallstones in the common bile duct (CBD) (thus '' choledocho-'' + '' lithiasis''). This condition can cause jaundice and liver cell damage. Treatments include choledocho ...

* Cholangitis *

Appendicitis Appendicitis is inflammation of the Appendix (anatomy), appendix. Symptoms commonly include right lower abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, fever and anorexia (symptom), decreased appetite. However, approximately 40% of people do not have these t ...

* Colitis * Acute peptic ulcer exacerbation * Amoebic liver abscess * Acute intestinal obstruction *

Kidney stone Kidney stone disease (known as nephrolithiasis, renal calculus disease, or urolithiasis) is a crystallopathy and occurs when there are too many minerals in the urine and not enough liquid or hydration. This imbalance causes tiny pieces of cr ...

* Biliary ascariasis

Treatment

Surgery

For most people with acute cholecystitis, the treatment of choice is surgical removal of the gallbladder, laparoscopic

cholecystectomy Cholecystectomy is the surgical removal of the gallbladder. Cholecystectomy is a common treatment of symptomatic gallstones and other gallbladder conditions. In 2011, cholecystectomy was the eighth most common operating room procedure performed i ...

. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy is performed using several small incisions located at various points across the abdomen. Several studies have demonstrated the superiority of laparoscopic cholecystectomy when compared to open cholecystectomy (using a large incision in the right upper abdomen under the rib cage). People undergoing laparoscopic surgery report less incisional pain postoperatively as well as having fewer long-term complications and less disability following the surgery. Additionally, laparoscopic surgery is associated with a lower rate of surgical site infection. During the days prior to laparoscopic surgery, studies showed that outcomes were better following early removal of the gallbladder, preferably within the first week. Early laparoscopic cholecystectomy (within 7 days of visiting a doctor with symptoms) as compared to delayed treatment (more than 6 weeks) may result in shorter hospital stays and a decreased risk of requiring an emergency procedure. There is no difference in terms of negative outcomes including bile duct injury or conversion to open

. For early cholecystectomy, the most common reason for conversion to open surgery is inflammation that hides Calot's triangle. For delayed surgery, the most common reason was fibrotic adhesions.

Other

X-ray with contrast of a percutaneous gallbladder drain

Supportive measures may be instituted prior to surgery. These measures include fluid resuscitation. Intravenous

opioids Opioids are a class of Drug, drugs that derive from, or mimic, natural substances found in the Papaver somniferum, opium poppy plant. Opioids work on opioid receptors in the brain and other organs to produce a variety of morphine-like effects, ...

can be used for pain control.

Antibiotic An antibiotic is a type of antimicrobial substance active against bacteria. It is the most important type of antibacterial agent for fighting pathogenic bacteria, bacterial infections, and antibiotic medications are widely used in the therapy ...

s are often not needed. In cases of severe inflammation, shock, or if the person has higher risk for general anesthesia (required for

), an interventional radiologist may insert a

percutaneous {{More citations needed, date=January 2021 In surgery, a percutaneous procedurei.e. Granger et al., 2012 is any medical procedure or method where access to inner organs or other tissue is done via needle-puncture of the skin, rather than by using ...

drainage catheter into the gallbladder (percutaneous cholecystostomy tube) and treat the person with antibiotics until the acute inflammation resolves. A

may then be warranted if the person's condition improves.

Homeopathic Homeopathy or homoeopathy is a pseudoscientific system of alternative medicine. It was conceived in 1796 by the German physician Samuel Hahnemann. Its practitioners, called homeopaths or homeopathic physicians, believe that a substance tha ...

approaches to treating cholecystitis have not been validated by evidence and should not be used in place of surgery.

Epidemiology

Cholecystitis accounts for 3–10% of cases of abdominal pain worldwide. Cholecystitis caused an estimated 651,829 emergency department visits and 389,180 hospital admissions in the US in 2012. The 2012 US mortality rate was 0.7 per 100,000 people. The frequency of cholecystitis is highest in people age 50–69 years old.

References

External links

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