Chinese Orchestra

The term Chinese orchestra is most commonly used to refer to the modern Chinese orchestra that is found in China and various overseas Chinese communities. This modern Chinese orchestra first developed out of Jiangnan sizhu ensemble in the 1920s into a form that is based on the structure and principles of a Western symphony orchestra but using Chinese instruments. The orchestra is divided into four sections – wind, plucked strings, bowed strings, and percussion, and usually performs modernized traditional music called ''guoyue''. The orchestra may be referred to as ''Minzu Yuetuan'' () or ''Minyuetuan'' () in mainland China, ''Chung Ngok Tuen'' () in Hong Kong, ''Huayuetuan'' () in Southeast Asia, or ''Guoyuetuan'' () in Taiwan.

The term modern Chinese orchestra is sometimes used to distinguish the current form from ancient Chinese orchestras that existed since the Shang dynasty and was used in royal courts and later during Confucian ceremonies.

Ancient Chinese orchestra

Archaeological findings suggest that ancient China has a highly developed and sophisticated music culture. Music was an important element in traditional ritualistic ceremonies during the Shang dynasty (c. 1550-1111 BC), and it reached one of its peaks during the Zhou dynasty (c. 1111–222 BC). The ancient orchestra of the Zhou dynasty played a form of ceremonial music known as '' yayue''.

It featured a great abundance of percussion instruments. There were also several wind instruments, but only a few zither-type string instruments were used. All the bowed string instruments and many plucked string instruments first came to China from Central Asia after the Han dynasty (202 BC-AD 219).

The Six Dynasties era following the collapse of the Han dynasty saw a wave of musical influence from Central Asia, and Central Asian Music became very popular during the Sui-Tang dynasty period. The Tang period was a very important epoch in the evolution of Chinese music, and court banquet music called ''yanyue'' () was the dominant form of music during this era. The number of orchestras in the Tang court may reach ten, each playing a different form of music including ''yanyue'', ''qingyue'', and music of other places such as Kucha, Kashgar, Samarkand, Korea and India. The Tang imperial court also had a large outdoor band of nearly 1,200 performers. Chinese music then continued to evolve during the Song dynasty (AD 960–1279) with major development in ''yayue'', and a ''yayue'' orchestra in this period may have over 200 instrumentalists.

Aside from the orchestras found in the court, musical ensembles, for example those in the '' sizhu'' and '' nanguan'' tradition, were also found among the general population to provide popular entertainment, and religious groupings may perform music in festivals and other religious settings.

Traditional Chinese musical instruments were classified into eight groups ('' bayin'') according to their materials: gourd, earthenware, hide, wood, stone, bronze, silk and bamboo. It is said that there were more than 70 different musical instruments, but many of them have been lost or are obsolete today.

Modern Chinese orchestra

The modern large Chinese orchestra is a 20th-century development and is based on the Western symphony orchestra, but uses Chinese instruments in place of Western instruments. It also emulates the Western orchestra in terms of the seating position of its musicians and composition techniques. The music produced by the Chinese orchestra however is unique and very distinct from any Western counterpart. Such orchestras usually perform Chinese orchestral music called ''guoyue'' or ''minyue'', although its repertoire may occasionally include adaptations of Western orchestral pieces or music originally composed for Western instruments.

Origin and development

In the early 20th century a number of Chinese musicians became interested in improving traditional Chinese music. While some such as Xiao Youmei, Yuen Ren Chao and He Luting promoted Western music, others defended traditional Chinese and worked to improve it. The president of Peking University Cai Yuanpei proposed using the best of Western music tradition to compensate for the perceived weaknesses in Chinese music, and the Peking University Music Society was formed in 1919. The interest in improving traditional Chinese music along Western model led to a number of music club and ensembles being formed in various cities. An early pioneer was Zheng Jinwen (, 1872–1935) who founded a music institution in Shanghai in 1921, the Great Unity Music Society (), to develop and maintain Chinese music in the modern age, recreating ancient music and instruments as well as creating new ensemble music for Chinese instruments. Zheng experimented with increasing the number of player in a '' Jiangnan sizhu'' ensemble to 35, and separated the instruments into different sections. He began to standardize the instruments, for example inventing methods to resolve the problem of traditional instruments such as '' dizi'' where the fundamental tuning for various instruments may be different. He also updated traditional instruments such as the '' sheng'' by increasing the number of pipes to increase its range and allow it to play harmony and chords. In the past, each player would embellish their parts at will, but in this new orchestra, Zheng wrote specific music for each instrument or sections. An early signature tune of the music club was "Spring Flowers on Moonlit River" (), arranged for the ensemble by Liu Yaozhang () in 1925 based on an older tune for pipa.

Another important figure of this period was Liu Tianhua who also formed a ''sizhu'' ensemble as part of the activity of the Society for Improving National Music he established at Peking University in 1927, and a periodical, the ''Music Magazine'' (), was founded. Breaking from a tradition where each part is played by only one player, he formed an ensemble where more than one player may play a part. He made changes to traditional instruments such as huqin and wrote music for it, turning a folk instrument into one suitable for concert performance. Liu also wrote for the ensemble and expanded on traditional musical notation so it may be used for an orchestra, specifying ornamentation details and tempo and the use of particular instruments in specific sections.

In 1935, a music ensemble was formed at the Broadcasting Company of China (BCC, also known as Central Broadcasting Company) in Nanjing for the broadcasting of traditional Chinese music. Due to the Sino-Japanese war, the ensemble later moved to Chongqing, where it held its first public performance in 1942. The ensemble also held classes, and it quickly expanded. In order to increase the pitch range, extra instruments were invented and added to the ensemble, such as the middle-to-low range '' zhonghu'', '' dahu'', '' dihu''. An eleven-hole ''dizi'' called '' xindi'' that can produce a complete chromatic scale was also invented. It became known as the BCC Chinese Orchestra, which is considered to be the first Chinese orchestra formed. The orchestra was organized along the line of a Western orchestra into a form that is recognizable today, with a conductor, full scores for musicians, and four sections – wind, plucked strings, bowed strings, and percussion. The plucked string section is unique to Chinese orchestra due to the large number of traditional Chinese lute-type instruments. The orchestra moved to Taiwan after the Communist victory in 1949.

A number of folk ensembles were established in the 1950s in the PRC, the first of these was the Shanghai Chinese Orchestra. In 1953, the PRC government established a Chinese orchestra for the broadcast of Chinese music, the 35-member Central Broadcasting Station Orchestra in Beijing, which included some former members of the BCC Chinese Orchestra and is based on the earlier orchestras but with further changes. The tuning of the instruments was shifted to the equal-tempered tuning system, improvements were made to instruments, and further various newly created instruments based on traditional instruments, such as '' gehu'', '' daruan'', '' zhongsheng'', were added to enhance the sound and range of the orchestra. Traditional pieces, as well as regional ensemble music were rearranged for a large orchestra. Peng Xiuwen, who became the conductor of the orchestra in 1956, adapted many pieces for the orchestra. Another significant orchestra was the Vanguard Chinese Folk Orchestra that added instruments such as ''liuqin'', '' zhuihu'', '' datongsheng'', '' disuona'', '' yunluo'' and ''paigu''. By the 1960s, a largely standardized and modernized form of Chinese orchestra had emerged, although experimentation with the orchestra, compositions and instruments used continues to the present day.

The modern Chinese orchestra has since become a cultural institution in China as well as Chinese communities outside of mainland China. Amateur Chinese orchestras are commonly found in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaysia where they may be organized by clan associations, community centres and schools, and some professional orchestras are also formed. For example, in Singapore the first amateur Chinese orchestra was formed in 1959, and its professional Singapore Chinese Orchestra was founded in 1974.

Notation

Whilst '' jianpu'' is sometimes used in the modern Chinese orchestra for Chinese instruments, standard notation (五线谱) is more commonly used throughout the entire orchestra. Modern Chinese orchestral works are often published in standard notation, both parts and full scores.

Recent developments

In September 2008, the 21st Century Chinese Orchestra Development Group (CO21) was formed by enthusiasts to gather support for the improvement of orchestra formation and instruments that have hindered the development of Chinese classical music. Suggested improvements included a change in orchestra layout, the use of staff notation and also modifications to existing instruments.

Instruments in modern orchestra

The modern Chinese orchestra typically consists of four main sections. These instruments are generally grouped according to the way they are played – the bowed strings (inclusive of the Western bass section), plucked strings, woodwinds and percussion. Many of the Chinese instruments are modified versions of traditional instruments, for example, the ''diyinsheng'' (large bass '' sheng''), and the ''zhongyin'' (alto) ''suona'', which is fitted with keys. These modifications are based on their Western counterparts.

Many modern Chinese orchestral pieces include parts written for Western instruments such as harp, cello and double bass, as well as Western percussion instruments. In fact, the roles of cello, double bass and Western percussion in modern Chinese orchestra are so important that almost all compositions use them. However, certain composers may prefer to use the gehu in place of cello, or the diyingehu (Bass Gehu) in place of double bass.

Plucked strings

The plucked strings section is unique to modern Chinese orchestra due to the large number of plucked instruments in China. This section consists of the ''liuqin'', '' yangqin'', ''pipa'', '' zhongruan'', and '' daruan''.

Some compositions include parts for the '' se'', '' guzheng'', '' konghou'', '' sanxian'', or harp.

This section sets the structure of modern Chinese orchestras apart from their Western counterparts. This largely plucked chordophone-based section creates tunes different from that of the Western orchestral instruments.

Yangqin

The '' yangqin'' is a dulcimer played using a pair of bamboo mallets rubberised on one end. Besides hitting the strings with the rubberised ends, the mallets can also be turned over to create a sharper note (this technique is called ''fanzhu''). Some songs even require the player to hold the mallets vertically and use the other end or even using the player hands to pluck. It is a versatile instrument capable of playing rapid running notes or arpeggios.

Liuqin

The ''liuqin'' is a soprano range lute. It looks similar to the ''pipa'' but smaller with two sound holes on each side of the body. The four strings are tuned G3-D4-G4-D5. By pressing slightly above any of the frets on the instrument, one can vary the pitch of the ''liuqin''. It is commonly played using a plectrum like in the guitar. The sound is very bright and penetrating, making it a very effective soprano instrument. Its range is similar to that of a violin.

Pipa

The ''pipa'' is the alto range member of the plucked string section. One of the more well-known Chinese instruments, this instrument has been associated with imperial concubines and songstresses at teahouses, often conveying the stereotypical image of a demure damsel. Despite the absence of soundholes, it is able to produce music as well as other plucked string instruments. The modern-day player has to wear a set of customised acrylic nails on the right hand. From simple plucking with the thumb and index finger and ''saoxian'' (sweeping one's fingers across all strings with gusto) to ''yaozhi'' (tilting the instrument and using the middle finger to continuously cut across the strings) and ''lunzou'' (by plucking with all five fingers, one after another in a wavelike motion), the playing techniques of the ''pipa'' are visibly dimensionless. Its tuning is A2-D3-E3-A3.

Zhongruan

The '' zhongruan'' plays the role of the tenor in this section. Its four strings are tuned to G2-D3-G3-D4. The instrument can be played using a plectrum similar to a guitar pick, as with the ''liuqin'', or using a set of 2 to 5 acrylic fingernails. Mainstream '' ruan'' players use plectrums, though there are some schools which teach the fingernail technique, similar to that of the ''pipa''. ''Pipa'' players who play ruan as a second instrument also use fingernails. Plectrums produce a louder and clearer tone, which makes them suitable for orchestral use. Fingernails allow performance of polyphonic solo music, however this advantage is not useful in orchestras, where the ''zhongruan'' mainly plays the accompaniment. It possesses a very mellow tone.

Daruan

The '' daruan'' is the bass lute. A larger version of the '' zhongruan'' with strings tuned to a perfect fourth lower: D2-A2-D3-A3. Soloists generally use the D-A-D-A tuning, as it allows easy performance of diatonic chords. Some orchestral players tune to C-G-D-A, which is the same as cello tuning. The advantage of using C-G-D-A in orchestras is so that the ''daruan'' can easily double the cello part.

Other members of the ruan family are '' gaoyinruan'' (soprano, tuning G3-D4-G4-D5); '' xiaoruan'' (alto, tuning D3-A3-D4-A4) and '' diyinruan'' ( contrabass, tuning G1-D2-G2-D3).

Sanxian

The '' sanxian'' is the only plucked string instrument without frets. As can be inferred from the name (''san'', lit. three; ''xian'', lit. string), it has three strings. The ''sanxian'' family of instruments is very large, with different variants used in different tribes in China. The orchestra often uses ''dasanxian'' (''da'', lit. large) has a soundbox covered on both sides with python skin. Its sound is forceful, penetrating and articulated; in fact, a single ''sanxian'' can be clearly heard even in a 70-member orchestra.

It has a strong folk flavour, which often puts it in the limelight when in usage with other instruments. For this reason too, it is not suitable for playing accompaniment, as it tends to overshadow the sound of the melody instruments. It is more frequently used in plucked string ensembles and solos. Even when used in the orchestra, it is also attributed with the main melody. However, since the orchestral usage of the ''sanxian'' is lower as compared to the other instruments, ''sanxian'' players also take up a second instrument, which is usually the ''zhongruan''.

Sometimes ''yueqin'' are also included in this section.

Guzheng

The '' guzheng'' is a Chinese plucked zither. Generally, it has 18 or more strings and movable bridges. Performers use picks to play this instrument and they are known as ''"daimao"''. Performers can play ''guzheng'' with both hands with different skills. There are usually a few ''guzheng'' members in a Chinese Orchestra, but it can also be played as a solo instrument. It emerged from the Warring period and became more popular since the Qin dynasty.

Bowed strings

The bowed strings section of the modern Chinese orchestra includes the '' gaohu'' (高胡), ''erhu'' (二胡), '' zhonghu'' (中胡), cello (大提琴) and double bass (低音提琴 or 倍大提琴). Certain compositions are scored for '' gehu'' (革胡) and '' diyingehu'' (bass ''gehu''; 低音革胡) in place of cello and double bass respectively; however, the adoption of ''gehu'' and ''diyingehu'' is limited in Chinese orchestras around the world.

In addition to the above-listed instruments, some musical works include parts for the ''banhu'' (板胡) or '' jinghu'' (京胡).

Like the violins in Western orchestral music, the ''erhu'' part is often divided into ''erhu I'' and ''erhu II'' parts.

Huqin

The '' huqin'' series of instruments in common usage consist of the ''erhu'', '' zhonghu'' and '' gaohu''. The gaohu (highest-pitched of the series) and ''zhonghu'' (lowest-pitched huqin) are proportionately fewer in numbers in the Chinese orchestra. The erhu forms the bulk of this section and is divided into distinct sections, known as ''erhu'' I and ''erhu'' II. These two sub-sections play either similar or vastly different melodies simultaneously, which is akin to the first and second violins in a Western orchestra. Occasionally, the concertmaster will play the ''banhu'' but it may not always be the concertmaster – an example is the piece ''Mang Chun'' (忙春), or '' jinghu'', for instance in Zhao Ji Ping's Festival Overture, if there is a solo part for it. There are various ways to play an erhu, such as bowing or plucking the strings.

The uniqueness of the ''huqin'' series lies in how music can be produced from two fine metal strings less than 2 mm apart, without any frets or fingerboards. Well-known solo pieces for the ''erhu'' includes ''Sanmen Gorge Capriccio'', ''Guang Ming Xing'' as well as '' Lan Huahua''.

''Banhu'' may sometimes be singularly used in the ''huqin'' section if a strong piccolo voice is needed.

Cello and double bass

The cello and double bass can also be considered part of this section. This is true in some orchestras, but in others the cello and bass are considered distinct from the bowed strings. Some Chinese orchestras still use the '' gehu'' and '' diyingehu'' (bass ''gehu''), but due to the limitations and the costs of the instruments, they are now quite rare. A notable example of an ensemble still utilising the ''gehu'' and ''diyingehu'' is th
Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra
In some Chinese orchestras in China, they used an instrument called '' laruan'', which has the shape of a ''ruan'' but is larger in size and is played by either plucking or using a bow similar to a cello or bass bow.

Woodwinds

The woodwinds section of the modern Chinese orchestra consists of the ''bangdi'', ''qudi'', ''gaoyinsheng'' (soprano '' sheng''), ''zhongyinsheng'' (alto ''sheng''), ''diyinsheng'' (bass ''sheng''), ''gaoyinsuona'' (soprano ''suona''), ''zhongyinsuona'' (alto ''suona''), and ''diyinsuona'' (bass ''suona'').

Some pieces are also scored for the ''xindi'', ''dadi'', ''koudi'', '' bawu'', ''xiao'', ''hailuo'', ''cizhongyinsheng'' (tenor ''sheng''), ''cizhongyinsuona'' (tenor ''suona''), ''gaoyinguan'' (soprano '' guan''), ''zhongyinguan'' (alto ''guan''), ''diyinguan'' (bass ''guan''), or ''xun''.

Dizi

The main types of '' dizis'' frequently used in the wind section are the ''bangdi'' (梆笛), the ''qudi'' (曲笛), and occasionally the ''xindi'' (新笛). The ''bangdi'' is shorter in length and smaller in diameter and produces a clear and bright tone. It is frequently used in bangzi opera of Northern and southern China, hence the name ''bangdi''. The longer and thicker qudi produces a richer and mellower tone. The ''bangdi'' is usually a fourth higher in pitch than the ''qudi''. The ''xindi'' is longer and thicker than the ''qudi'', with extra finger holes and no membrance. It is even lower in pitch and mellower in tone than the ''qudi''. The ''dadi'' (or ''diyindi'') may be used as substitution for the ''xindi'', this instrument has a membrane and sounds like a low ''qudi''.

Sheng

The '' sheng'' is a Chinese free-reed bamboo mouth organ. The earliest type ever recorded in history had 14 pipes and was discovered in Zeng Houyi's tomb in Hubei province. The most common types of ''sheng'' today include a 17-pipe instrument and a modified version for contemporary compositions, which has an expanded range of 21–42 pipes. The tone of the ''sheng'' is lucid and bright. It has a huge range, a chromatically complete scale and is able to produce chord voicings. Most orchestras use a full range of ''sheng'', including the ''gaoyin'' (soprano), ''zhongyin'' (alto), ''cizhongyin'' (tenor) and ''diyin'' (bass) ''sheng''.

Suona

The tone produced by ''suona'' is loud, piercing and uplifting, thus it is usually used to perform vibrant and lively pieces. However, its repertoire also includes some mellower pieces. The ''suona'' is commonly used as an accompaniment in the Chinese opera, singing or dancing, but also for more sombre occasions, such as during a traditional Chinese funeral procession. It is also utilised in solos or ensembles for various occasions and ceremonies. Being a double-reeded wind instrument, it is extremely difficult to master it to produce perfect pitches. There are modified types, such as the keyed alto, tenor and bass ''suonas''. Many ''suona'' players are also now doubling on '' guan'', a double-reed Chinese instrument of much mellower quality (like that of the clarinet.) This usage has also led to the development of keyed lower '' guan'', such as the ''zhongyin'' and ''diyin Guans''.

Occasionally, ''koudi'', ''xun'', ''haojiao'' (horn), ''hailuo'' (conch shell) and ''xiao'' would also be used according to the composition.

Percussion

Like its Western counterpart, instruments used in the percussion section of the modern Chinese orchestra vary according to the musical work. The percussion section of the modern Chinese orchestra consists of two main parts: Chinese percussion and Western percussion.

More often than not, musical works written for modern Chinese orchestra incorporate a large Western percussion section, including important roles for instruments like the timpani, bass drum, snare drum, etc. More obscure instruments in orchestral context like the mark tree, vibraslap, conga, cowbell, etc. are also utilized in modern Chinese orchestra. Western percussion is considered an essential part of the Chinese orchestra percussion section.

The history of Chinese percussion instruments is longer than any other section of traditional Chinese instruments. The character of the drum was first recorded in the ancient inscriptions on oracle bones and tortoise shells dating from the Shang dynasty. At that time (1562–1066 BC) more than 50 percent of Chinese instruments were percussive in nature.

Percussion instruments produce sound through striking on the surface. Common materials used for making percussion instruments in the past were gold, rock, wood and bamboo. The more popular percussion instruments include the ''luo'', gongs, ''gu'' (drums), ''bo'' (cymbals), and ''bianzhong''.

Because of the richness of the timbre, sound and variety of Chinese percussion instruments, they are frequently used in Western-style musical compositions. A large gong can create a stately and imposing atmosphere; dramatic effects can be achieved with the '' tanggu'', ''muyu'' and ''qing'' also can invoke an element of mystery.

In Chinese opera, the percussion section of the orchestra is particularly important, especially for martial scenes known as ''wu chang'', or The player of the ''bangu'', directs the rest of the orchestra through his different methods and positions of striking his instrument. He has control over the overall development of the action and creation of atmosphere, and is equivalent to the conductor of the Western orchestra.

Bangu

The ''bangu'' (''ban'', lit. flat board; ''gu'', lit. drum) is also commonly called ''jing bangu'' (''jing'' means Beijing opera) and ''danpi'' (single drumhead). The drum frame is constructed of thick wedges of hardwood glued together in a circle, wrapped with a metal band. Its body is bell-mouthed in shape, which opens at the bottom. Its top surface (about 25 cm), covered with a piece of pig or cow hide, has a small convex central circular opening (about 5 or 6 cm in diameter), which is called the ''guxin'' (lit. drum heart, which is the middle of the drum), the actual sounding position. The player strikes on this central area with a pair of bamboo sticks. The use of normal sticks would cause the pain of hand and the bamboos sticks used are also not commonly used.

The type used for Beijing opera and other northern Chinese musical dramas, with a smaller central striking area, has a relatively solid tone quality. In the southern gong and drum ensemble, the bangu has a larger striking area, rendering a looser and softer tone. The southern type can be used for solos with a variety of techniques and rhythms. The ''jing bangu'' is the lead instrument in the Beijing opera.

Bo

The ''bo'' (bronze cymbals) were frequently used in Sui and Tang dynasties (AD 581–907) with varying designs. Now it is commonly made of high-tin bronze.

The performer strikes the cymbals together. The most common type now is the '' jingbo'' (the prefix ''jing'' referring to Beijing, the prefix used to define the instruments in the Beijing opera). This type is clear and forceful in tone quality. It is also used in other regional opera genres and ensembles, and is one of the four major instruments (drum, large and small gongs and cymbals) in the jubilant ''luogu'' (gong and drum) music. In local operas, the ''luogu'' ensemble often accompanies acrobatic fighting.

Luo

The '' luo'', or Chinese gong, is made of high-tin bronze, hammered into the shape of a sifter. Its central resonating area can be either flat or convex. Its long history can be traced back to the early Western Han period (206 BC-AD 24) according to an archaeological find from a tomb of that period in Guangxi. In a text dating to the Tang period (AD 618–907), it was known as the ''shaluo'' (sand gong), which is among the earlier evidence of gong usage in classical literature.

There are many varieties of gongs, each with varying tone qualities. The name is usually preceded by a prefix to specify each different kind. The largest type (over 120 cm in diameter) called ''dachaoluo'', known for its deep and grave tone, is used in official settings like weddings, funerals and temple ceremonies. The smallest, the ''goujiaoluo'' (dog-calling gong), only 8 cm in diameter, can often be seen in theatrical ensembles in the southern parts of Fujian. Both the larger and the smaller boast distinct acoustic features, functions and performing styles. Different size and thinkness of the cymbals will affect the sound tone being produced. The ''da di luo'' (big gong) has a very deep sound in contrast to the ''goujiaoluo''.

Yunluo

The '' yunluo'' (cloud gong) was first mentioned in historical records as yun'ao during the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). The small gongs in a set, usually numbering up to 10 and in distinct pitches, are suspended vertically in a wooden frame. Each is attached to a cubicle within the frame, secured by cords. These gongs are all of the same diameter but vary in thickness. In terms of tuning, thicker dimensions give higher pitches, and thinner ones, lower. The instruments are struck with a small beater.

In a recently redesigned type, the number of gongs was increased, ranging from 29 to 38, and two mallets with either hard or soft tips are used for different tonal effects. One sounds loud and solid, while the other soft and drifting. Owing to the expanded range, modification in ''yunluo'' thickness cannot change the pitch of each small gong. Thus varying diameters are used for the new tones for variation.

The ''yunluo'' are mostly used in ensembles, and recently in solos as well.

Tanggu

The '' tanggu'' (hall drum) is listed as a hide instrument in the traditional ''bayin'' classification of Chinese instruments. The common type is similar in shape to a barrel. Its wooden body, entirely painted red with decorative patterns, is covered with two drumheads of cowhide or pig skin. Four lateral iron rings around the shell allow the drum to be vertically suspended in a frame. It is struck with a pair of wooden beaters. Tone quality can be modified by moving the striking point closer to the centre of the surface, with varying dynamics. Usually the different tone are not easily identified.

The ''tanggu'' is constructed mainly in two types. The larger one, with diameters of over a metre, can produce a deep and sonorous tone and the smaller, with a diameter of 20 to 30 cm, is solid and forceful in tone quality. It is traditionally used with other instruments like ''luo'' and ''bo'' in folk festivals, and in ensembles or for accompaniment as well. Types for local operas are mostly smaller, for instance, the ''jing tanggu'' in Beijing opera. Some could also be known as ''dagu'', ''datanggu'', ''xiaogu'' or ''xiaotanggu''.

Muyu

The ''muyu'' (wooden fish) was used originally to accompany Buddhist chants and monks only. An account of this instrument was found in the literature of the Ming dynasty (AD 1368–1644): "The ''muyu'' is carved from a block of wood and into the shape of a fish, then its interior is hollowed out. Sounds can be produced by striking." Since the Qing dynasty (AD 1644–1911) the instrument has appeared in folk ensembles.

The ''muyu'' is mostly made of mulberry (or Chinese Toon) wood. The larger type is primarily used in Buddhist temples, but recently appears in sets, varying in diameters and tonal qualities. The set is mainly used for regular rhythms when used for accompaniment. Playing the different parts of the ''muyu'' could have different volume.

Bianzhong

The ''bianzhong'' () is listed as a primary metal instrument, and thus heads the metal section under the ''bayin'' classifications. Its long history dates back to the Shang dynasty (1766–1122 BC), when a set of 3 bronze bells was common, though the earlier earthenware type of the late Stone Age was unearthed in Shaanxi province. From the 5th to the 3rd century BC the number of bells increased, mostly from 9 to 13.

The largest set ever recorded was exhumed from the tomb of Marquis Yi of the State of Zeng, Zeng-hou Yi (from sometime after 433 BC) in Hubei province. This archaeological finding has become a focus of international academic attention. The ''bianzhong'' being found still have a good sound quality despite many years after it was made. The ''bianzhong'' set consists of 64 bells, hung in three layers, with the upper ones called ''niuzhong'' (bells with bronze loops for vertical suspension), while those on the two lower layers were called ''yongzhong'' (bells with handles for suspension at a slight angle). Because of the shape of the bells, two different pitches, a major or minor third apart, can be produced on any of the bells, depending on the two striking locations, which are either the frontal or the lateral. 12 semitones are found in the set, with a total range of 5 octaves.

The inscriptions on the bells unite to form a literary text on the large tone system of the ''bianzhong'', valuable sources for the study of the musical culture in the Warring States period during the Eastern Zhou dynasty (475–221 BC). With the construction for two different pitches from a single bell and its unique casting methods, the ''bianzhong'' is one of the more unusual instruments of traditional Chinese music.

Lion drum

The size of a lion drum is very big, and is widely used for the Lion dance. There are normally 2 types, the northern Lion drum (normally in red) and southern lion drum (painted in black). It is a single-headed drum, and its large size helps to create a majestic, booming resonance upon striking of the drum head. The lion drum head is made of thick, durable goat skin, and its wooden body is normally decorated with intricate hand-drawn drawings. The sound produce by it usually sound higher key than the ''datanggu''.

Repertoire

Some of the well-known pieces for Chinese orchestra were originally composed in the 1930s until the interruption due to the Second Sino-Japanese War and Chinese Civil War, and the period from the fifties until the mid-1960s before the Cultural Revolution disrupted cultural activities. Experimental pieces were composed in the early days of Chinese orchestra, an example of the earliest compositions for the Chinese orchestra with triadic chordal progression, Spring on the Lake, was composed by Tan Xiaolin in the 1930s. Numerous compositions for a modern Chinese orchestra have been added to the repertoire since the 1980s. Such music composed generally follows the rules of traditional Chinese modal harmony, even if the music has become less pentatonic and more chromatic. One example of such modern compositions is The Great Wall Capriccio, a concerto composed in 1981 for erhu by Liu Wenjin.

Many of the popular early pieces for Chinese orchestra are based on folk music and other traditional genres. They may be originally traditional or solo pieces for Chinese instruments or written for Western orchestra, but later rearranged for a Chinese orchestra. A notable figure is Peng Xiuwen who was appointed conductor and director of Central Broadcasting Station Orchestra in 1956, and who rearranged many compositions for the Chinese orchestra. Some modern Chinese orchestras have also adapted contemporary Chinese popular songs as well as Western classical and pop music in their performances.

The following are examples of pieces written for large modern Chinese orchestra. These musical works may utilise Western musical composition techniques, as well as the inclusion of Western instruments like cello, double bass, harp and Western percussion.

This is not a complete list of all musical works written for modern Chinese orchestra.

Earlier pieces

Recent compositions

Musical works that are written for modern Chinese orchestra are influenced by the musical structures, composition techniques, music theories, etc. of Western orchestral music. These compositions include parts scored for Western instruments, such as cello, double bass, harp and Western percussion. As mentioned above, the development of the modern Chinese orchestra itself in the 20th century was based on the foundation laid by the Western symphonic orchestra.

The following are examples of famous pieces written for modern Chinese orchestra.

Notable Chinese orchestras

* China Broadcasting Chinese Orchestra
* China National Traditional Orchestra
* Ding Yi Music Company
* Firebird Youth Chinese Orchestra
* Guangdong Chinese Orchestra
* Singapore Chinese Orchestra
* Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra
*National Chinese Orchestra
* Shanghai Chinese Orchestra
* Taipei Chinese Orchestra
Philippine Cultural College Chinese OrchestraCanadian Chinese Orchestra

See also

* Traditional Chinese musical instruments
*Music of China
*Guoyue

References

*Lee Yuan-Yuan and Shen, Sinyan. ''Chinese Musical Instruments (Chinese Music Monograph Series)''. 1999. Chinese Music Society of North America Press.
*Shen, Sinyan. ''Chinese Music in the 20th Century (Chinese Music Monograph Series)''. 2001. Chinese Music Society of North America Press.

External links

Chinese Orchestra @ Singapore

CO21 – 21st Century Chinese Orchestra Development Group
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{{Chinese orchestras