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Characteristic modes (CM) form a set of functions which, under specific boundary conditions, diagonalizes operator relating field and induced
sources Source may refer to: Research * Historical document * Historical source * Source (intelligence) or sub source, typically a confidential provider of non open-source intelligence * Source (journalism), a person, publication, publishing institute ...
. Under certain conditions, the set of the CM is unique and complete (at least theoretically) and thereby capable of describing the behavior of a studied object in full. This article deals with characteristic mode decomposition in
electromagnetics In physics, electromagnetism is an interaction that occurs between particles with electric charge via electromagnetic fields. The electromagnetic force is one of the four fundamental forces of nature. It is the dominant force in the interacti ...
, a domain in which the CM theory has originally been proposed.


Background

CM decomposition was originally introduced as set of modes diagonalizing a scattering matrix. The theory has, subsequently, been generalized by Harrington and Mautz for antennas. Harrington, Mautz and their students also successively developed several other extensions of the theory. Even though some precursors were published back in the late 1940s, the full potential of CM has remained unrecognized for an additional 40 years. The capabilities of CM were revisited in 2007 and, since then, interest in CM has dramatically increased. The subsequent boom of CM theory is reflected by the number of prominent publications and applications.


Definition

For simplicity, only the original form of the CM – formulated for perfectly electrically conducting (PEC) bodies in
free space A vacuum (: vacuums or vacua) is space devoid of matter. The word is derived from the Latin adjective (neuter ) meaning "vacant" or "void". An approximation to such vacuum is a region with a gaseous pressure much less than atmospheric pressur ...
 — will be treated in this article. The electromagnetic quantities will solely be represented as Fourier's images in
frequency domain In mathematics, physics, electronics, control systems engineering, and statistics, the frequency domain refers to the analysis of mathematical functions or signals with respect to frequency (and possibly phase), rather than time, as in time ser ...
. Lorenz's gauge is used. The scattering of an
electromagnetic wave In physics, electromagnetic radiation (EMR) is a self-propagating wave of the electromagnetic field that carries momentum and radiant energy through space. It encompasses a broad spectrum, classified by frequency or its inverse, wavelength, ...
on a PEC body is represented via a boundary condition on the PEC body, namely : \boldsymbol \times \boldsymbol^\mathrm = -\boldsymbol \times \boldsymbol^\mathrm, with \boldsymbol representing unitary normal to the PEC surface, \boldsymbol^\mathrm representing incident electric field intensity, and \boldsymbol^\mathrm representing scattered electric field intensity defined as :\boldsymbol^\mathrm = -\mathrm\omega\boldsymbol - \nabla\varphi, with \mathrm being
imaginary unit The imaginary unit or unit imaginary number () is a mathematical constant that is a solution to the quadratic equation Although there is no real number with this property, can be used to extend the real numbers to what are called complex num ...
, \omega being
angular frequency In physics, angular frequency (symbol ''ω''), also called angular speed and angular rate, is a scalar measure of the angle rate (the angle per unit time) or the temporal rate of change of the phase argument of a sinusoidal waveform or sine ...
, \boldsymbol being
vector potential In vector calculus, a vector potential is a vector field whose curl is a given vector field. This is analogous to a ''scalar potential'', which is a scalar field whose gradient is a given vector field. Formally, given a vector field \mathbf, a ' ...
: \boldsymbol \left(\boldsymbol\right) = \mu_0 \int\limits_\Omega \boldsymbol \left(\boldsymbol'\right) G \left(\boldsymbol, \boldsymbol'\right) \, \mathrmS, \mu_0 being
vacuum permeability The vacuum magnetic permeability (variously ''vacuum permeability'', ''permeability of free space'', ''permeability of vacuum'', ''magnetic constant'') is the magnetic permeability in a classical vacuum. It is a physical constant, conventionally ...
, \varphi being
scalar potential In mathematical physics, scalar potential describes the situation where the difference in the potential energies of an object in two different positions depends only on the positions, not upon the path taken by the object in traveling from one p ...
: \varphi \left(\boldsymbol\right) = - \frac \int\limits_\Omega \nabla\cdot\boldsymbol \left(\boldsymbol'\right) G \left(\boldsymbol, \boldsymbol'\right) \, \mathrmS, \epsilon_0 being
vacuum permittivity Vacuum permittivity, commonly denoted (pronounced "epsilon nought" or "epsilon zero"), is the value of the absolute dielectric permittivity of classical vacuum. It may also be referred to as the permittivity of free space, the electric const ...
, G \left(\boldsymbol,\boldsymbol'\right) being scalar
Green's function In mathematics, a Green's function (or Green function) is the impulse response of an inhomogeneous linear differential operator defined on a domain with specified initial conditions or boundary conditions. This means that if L is a linear dif ...
: G \left(\boldsymbol,\boldsymbol'\right) = \frac and k being
wavenumber In the physical sciences, the wavenumber (or wave number), also known as repetency, is the spatial frequency of a wave. Ordinary wavenumber is defined as the number of wave cycles divided by length; it is a physical quantity with dimension of ...
. The integro-differential operator \boldsymbol \times \boldsymbol^\mathrm \left(\boldsymbol \right) is the one to be diagonalized via characteristic modes. The governing equation of the CM decomposition is : \mathcal \left(\boldsymbol_n\right) = \lambda_n \mathcal \left(\boldsymbol_n\right) \qquad\mathrm with \mathcal and \mathcal being real and imaginary parts of impedance operator, respectively: \mathcal(\cdot) = \mathcal(\cdot) + \mathrm\mathcal(\cdot)\,. The operator, \mathcal is defined by : \mathcal \left(\boldsymbol\right) = \boldsymbol \times \boldsymbol \times \boldsymbol^\mathrm \left(\boldsymbol\right). \qquad\mathrm The outcome of (1) is a set of characteristic modes \left\, n\in \left\, accompanied by associated characteristic numbers \left\. Clearly, (1) is a
generalized eigenvalue problem In linear algebra, eigendecomposition is the factorization of a matrix into a canonical form, whereby the matrix is represented in terms of its eigenvalues and eigenvectors. Only diagonalizable matrices can be factorized in this way. When the mat ...
, which, however, cannot be analytically solved (except for a few canonical bodies). Therefore, the numerical solution described in the following paragraph is commonly employed.


Matrix formulation

Discretization \mathcal of the body of the scatterer \Omega into M subdomains as \Omega^M = \mathcal\left(\Omega\right) and using a set of linearly independent piece-wise continuous functions \left\, n\in\left\, allows current density \boldsymbol to be represented as : \boldsymbol \left(\boldsymbol\right) \approx \sum\limits_^N I_n \boldsymbol_n \left(\boldsymbol\right) and by applying the
Galerkin method In mathematics, in the area of numerical analysis, Galerkin methods are a family of methods for converting a continuous operator problem, such as a differential equation, commonly in a weak formulation, to a discrete problem by applying linear c ...
, the impedance operator (2) : \mathbf = \mathbf + \mathrm \mathbf = \left _\right= \left ,\int\limits_\Omega \boldsymbol_u^\ast \cdot \mathcal \left(\boldsymbol_v\right) \, \mathrmS\right The eigenvalue problem (1) is then recast into its matrix form : \mathbf \mathbf_n = \lambda_n \mathbf\mathbf_n, which can easily be solved using, e.g., the generalized Schur decomposition or the implicitly restarted Arnoldi method yielding a finite set of expansion coefficients \left\ and associated characteristic numbers \left\. The properties of the CM decomposition are investigated below.


Properties

The properties of CM decomposition are demonstrated in its matrix form. First, recall that the
bilinear form In mathematics, a bilinear form is a bilinear map on a vector space (the elements of which are called '' vectors'') over a field ''K'' (the elements of which are called '' scalars''). In other words, a bilinear form is a function that is linea ...
s : P_\mathrm \approx \frac \mathbf^\mathrm \mathbf \mathbf \geq 0 and : 2\omega\left(W_\mathrm - W_\mathrm\right) \approx \frac \mathbf^\mathrm \mathbf \mathbf, where superscript ^\mathrm denotes the
Hermitian transpose In mathematics, the conjugate transpose, also known as the Hermitian transpose, of an m \times n complex matrix \mathbf is an n \times m matrix obtained by transposing \mathbf and applying complex conjugation to each entry (the complex conjugate ...
and where \mathbf represents an arbitrary surface current distribution, correspond to the radiated power and the reactive net power, respectively. The following properties can then be easily distilled: * The weighting matrix \mathbf is theoretically positive definite and \mathbf is indefinite. The
Rayleigh quotient In mathematics, the Rayleigh quotient () for a given complex Hermitian matrix M and nonzero vector ''x'' is defined as:R(M,x) = .For real matrices and vectors, the condition of being Hermitian reduces to that of being symmetric, and the conjugat ...
: \lambda_n \approx \frac then spans the
range Range may refer to: Geography * Range (geographic), a chain of hills or mountains; a somewhat linear, complex mountainous or hilly area (cordillera, sierra) ** Mountain range, a group of mountains bordered by lowlands * Range, a term used to i ...
of -\infty \leq \lambda_n \leq \infty and indicates whether the characteristic mode is capacitive (\lambda_n < 0), inductive (\lambda_n > 0), or in resonance (\lambda_n = 0). In reality, the Rayleigh quotient is limited by the numerical dynamics of the machine precision used and the number of correctly found modes is limited. * The characteristic numbers evolve with frequency, i.e., \lambda_n = \lambda_n \left(\omega\right), they can cross each other, or they can be the same (in case of degeneracies). For this reason, the tracking of modes is often applied to get smooth curves \lambda_n \left(\omega\right). Unfortunately, this process is partly heuristic and the tracking algorithms are still far from perfection. * The characteristic modes can be chosen as real-valued functions, \mathbf_n \in \mathbb^. In other words, characteristic modes form a set of equiphase currents. * The CM decomposition is invariant with respect to the amplitude of the characteristic modes. This fact is used to normalize the current so that they radiate unitary radiated power : \frac \mathbf_m^\mathrm \mathbf \mathbf_n \approx \left(1 + \mathrm \lambda_n\right) \delta_. This last relation presents the ability of characteristic modes to diagonalize the impedance operator (2) and demonstrates far field
orthogonality In mathematics, orthogonality is the generalization of the geometric notion of '' perpendicularity''. Although many authors use the two terms ''perpendicular'' and ''orthogonal'' interchangeably, the term ''perpendicular'' is more specifically ...
, i.e., : \frac \sqrt \int\limits_0^ \int\limits_0^\pi \boldsymbol_m^\ast \cdot \boldsymbol_n \sin \vartheta \, \mathrm \vartheta \, \mathrm \varphi = \delta_.


Modal quantities

The modal currents can be used to evaluate antenna parameters in their modal form, for example: * modal far-field \boldsymbol_n \left(\boldsymbol, \boldsymbol\right) (\boldsymbol — polarization, \boldsymbol — direction), * modal
directivity In electromagnetics, directivity is a parameter of an antenna or optical system which measures the degree to which the radiation emitted is concentrated in a single direction. It is the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction f ...
\boldsymbol_n \left(\boldsymbol, \boldsymbol\right), * modal radiation efficiency \eta_n, * modal quality factor Q_n, * modal impedance Z_n. These quantities can be used for analysis, feeding synthesis, radiator's shape optimization, or antenna characterization.


Applications and further development

The number of potential applications is enormous and still growing: * antenna analysis and synthesis, * design of
MIMO In radio, multiple-input and multiple-output (MIMO) () is a method for multiplying the capacity of a radio link using multiple transmission and receiving antennas to exploit multipath propagation. MIMO has become an essential element of wirel ...
antennas, * compact antenna design (
RFID Radio-frequency identification (RFID) uses electromagnetic fields to automatically identify and track tags attached to objects. An RFID system consists of a tiny radio transponder called a tag, a radio receiver, and a transmitter. When tri ...
,
Wi-Fi Wi-Fi () is a family of wireless network protocols based on the IEEE 802.11 family of standards, which are commonly used for Wireless LAN, local area networking of devices and Internet access, allowing nearby digital devices to exchange data by ...
), * UAV antennas, * selective excitation of chassis and platforms, * model order reduction, * bandwidth enhancement, * nanotubes and metamaterials, * validation of computational electromagnetics codes. The prospective topics include * electrically large structures calculated using MLFMA, * dielectrics, * use of Combined Field Integral Equation, * periodic structures, * formulation for arrays.


Software

CM decomposition has recently been implemented in major electromagnetic simulators, namely in FEKO, CST-MWS, and WIPL-D. Other packages are about to support it soon, for example HFSS and CEM One. In addition, there is a plethora of in-house and academic packages which are capable of evaluating CM and many associated parameters.


Alternative bases

CM are useful to understand radiator's operation better. They have been used with great success for many practical purposes. However, it is important to stress that they are not perfect and it is often better to use other formulations such as energy modes, radiation modes, stored energy modes or radiation efficiency modes.


References

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