caste system in Sri Lanka

The caste systems in Sri Lanka are social stratification systems found among the ethnic groups of the island since ancient times. The models are similar to those found in Continental India, but are less extensive and important for various reasons. Modern times Sri Lanka is often considered to be a casteless society in South Asia.

The caste systems of Sri Lanka were historically not tied to the religious establishment but rather a tool to service the ruling elite - a model more reminiscent of feudalism in Europe. At least three major, parallel caste systems exist in Sri Lankan society: ''Sinhalese'', ''Sri Lankan Tamil'' and ''Indian Tamils''''.''

A universal welfare system that focused on providing education for everyone regardless of background has provided people from lower caste groups similar opportunities to enter jobs previously only frequented by those in upper-caste groups, with younger generations mostly rejecting any pressure to conform to caste-related jobs. The Civil War has also broken down caste barriers as they were seen as an obstacle toward ethnolinguistic unity.

Overview

The caste system or feudal of the Sinhalese and Sri Lankan Tamils display some similar traits, where both systems having comparable castes with similar occupations and status.

The interior arable land is largely dominated by the Govigama caste under the Sinhalese and by the Vellalar under the Sri Lankan Tamils, who are traditionally involved as husbandmen and form approximately half the population of their respective ethnicities. The peasants under them are the Sinhalese Bathgama and Tamil Pallars. The coastal land is dominated by the Karavas under the Sinhalese and the Karaiyar under the Tamils. Both castes share a common origin with background in seafaring, trade and warfare. The artisans were collectively known as Navandanna by the Sinhalese and as Kammalar by the Tamils. They constituted of respective endogamous castes traditionally involved as blacksmith, goldsmith, coppersmith, carpenters and stonemasons. While toddy tapping was largely in the hands of the Sinhalese Durava and Tamil Nalavar, jaggery production was in the hands of the Sinhalese Vahumpura and Tamil Cantars. The traditional drummers of both ethnicities, the Sinhalese Berava and Tamil Paraiyar, have religious importance in Buddhism and Hinduism, respectively. The domestic castes of barbers and dhobies were the respective Sinhalese Ambattaya and Hinnava, and Tamil Ambattar and Vannar.

Political power and wealth have largely replaced caste as the main factor in Sri Lankan social stratification, especially in the Sinhalese and Indian Tamil communities. Ponnambalam Ramanathan, under British Ceylon, opposed extending voting rights to the people and urged reservation of franchise only to men of the Vellalar caste.

Sinhalese castes

In traditional Sinhalese society Buddhist monks are placed at the top. Irrespective of the birth caste of a monk, even the king had to show respect to them.

The documented history of the island begins with the arrival of Prince Vijaya from India. Although the origin of Sri Lankan communities is unclear, genetic studies on Sinhalese have shown that most of the Sinhala community are genetically related to North Indians, with traces from South India too. About half of the Sinhalese population are ''Govigama''.

Ancient Sri Lankan texts, such as the ''Pujavaliya'', ''Sadharmaratnavaliya'', ''Yogaratnakaraya'' and inscriptions, show that a feudal system namely existed among the Sinhalese. Evidence of this hierarchy can be seen during the 18th-century British-Kandyan period, indicating its continuation even after the Sri Lankan monarchy.
Colonialism and foreign intervention in the dynastic conflicts of the island throughout history have also influenced the caste system, some suggesting even a re-arrangement of the occupational castes.

The kings of Sri Lanka traditionally belonged to a specific caste, with their lineage and ancestry tied to the Kandyan nobility and the Sinhalese royal families. The caste system in Sri Lanka had a complex structure, but in the context of monarchy, the kings primarily belonged to the Radala caste (or Kandyan nobility), which was closely connected to royalty and aristocracy.

Key Castes of the Kings of Sri Lanka

1. Radala (රදල)

* Occupation: Aristocracy, nobility, military leaders, landowners, and royal administrators.
* Social Role: The Radala caste consisted of high-ranking members of the Kandyan nobility. The kings of Sri Lanka, particularly those in the Kandyan Kingdom, were often from this caste. The Radala caste was composed of aristocrats who played a key role in governance, military leadership, and royal service.
* Status: The Radala caste is considered the highest in the Sinhalese social hierarchy, especially in the context of the Kandyan kingdom, as they were closely associated with royal service and landholding.
* Connection to Kingship: Many Kandyan kings were born into Radala families, making this caste integral to the monarchy. The kings of Kandy were considered part of this caste, and their lineage was often tied to high-ranking aristocratic families.

2. Navandanna (නවන්දන්න)

* Occupation: Royal service, temple service, and high-ranking administrative roles.
* Social Role: While not a primary royal caste, the Navandanna caste often played crucial roles in royal administration and temple service. In some contexts, they were even close to the royal family, especially in matters of religion and royal ceremonies.
* Status: Although Navandanna is sometimes viewed as a caste closely connected to royal power, it was more of a specialized caste serving in religious and ceremonial roles. This caste had significant influence over temples and royal service, but the Radala caste was more directly associated with the monarchy itself.

Kandyan castes

In the Central Highlands, many traditions of the Kingdom of Kandy were preserved from its 1818 collapse beyond independence in 1948 and the Land Reform Act of the 1970s. Although large agricultural landlords belonged to the Govigama caste, many now may not own land. Most Govigama were however ordinary farmers and tenants as absolute land ownership was exclusive to the king until the British colonial period. The most important feature of the Kandyan system was ''Rajakariya'' ("the king's work"), which linked each caste to occupation and demanded service to the court and religious institutions.

The "Duraya" was a loose categorization of lower Kandyan castes, comprising the castes of Vahumpura, Puda, Panna, Velli, Berava, possibly Henaya, and more. The group was interpreted by the British for their own administrative purposes and was used loosely.

Notable Kings and Their Caste

* King Vijayabahu I (reigned 1055–1110 CE): Known for uniting Sri Lanka after the Chola invasion, he was of Sinhalese royal blood and belonged to the Radala caste.
* King Parakramabahu I (reigned 1153–1186 CE): A significant king in Sri Lankan history, known for his military achievements and contributions to infrastructure. He was also part of the Sinhalese royal line and belonged to the Radala caste.
* King Kirthi Sri Rajasinha (reigned 1747–1782):
** Caste: Navandanna (also sometimes associated with Radala nobility, depending on historical sources).
** King Sri Wickrama Rajasinghe (reigned 1798–1815):
*** Caste: Navandanna (with some sources mentioning his connection to the Kandyan nobility and Radala caste).
*** Legacy: King Sri Wickrama Rajasinghe was the last king of Sri Lanka before the British took control. Though he came from royal heritage, some historical sources suggest that his family was linked to the Navandanna caste. His reign ended with the British annexation of the Kandyan Kingdom in 1815, which marked the end of the monarchy in Sri Lanka.
The caste system in Sri Lanka traditionally governed not only social roles and occupation but also marriage alliances. Inter-caste marriages were often restricted, with individuals typically marrying within their own caste or specific castes that were considered compatible. However, the norms and practices related to caste-based marriages have evolved over time, especially in modern Sri Lanka, where caste distinctions are less rigid than they once were.

Here’s an overview of traditional caste-based marriage practices:

1. Highest Castes (Royal and Aristocratic)

* Navandanna and Radala castes were considered the highest in terms of social status due to their strong associations with royalty, temple service, and nobility.
** Marriage Pattern: Members of the Navandanna and Radala castes often married within their own caste or formed alliances with other high-ranking noble families. Sometimes, they might marry into the Govigama caste if the family had significant landholding or political influence.
** Example Alliances: Navandanna caste members might marry other Navandanna families, or in some cases, a Radala might marry a Govigama who had royal connections or high status.

2. Landowners, Agrarian Castes

* Govigama caste was one of the most significant in terms of landownership and agriculture.
** Marriage Pattern: Members of the Govigama caste often married within their own caste but could also form alliances with other wealthy or landowning castes. This could include castes like the Karava (traditionally seafarers) or Vellala (Tamil agriculturalists), especially if the other caste had economic status or wealth.
** Example Alliances: Govigama families may marry within Govigama, but sometimes they could also form alliances with the Karava or Salagama castes, especially if there was land or economic power involved.

3. Merchant and Trader Castes

* Karava, Salagama, and Kandyan Merchant castes traditionally played a key role in trade and commerce.
** Marriage Pattern: These castes generally married within their own communities, but members of the Karava caste might occasionally form alliances with the Govigama caste if the family was wealthy and owned land. Similarly, Salagama families, associated with the cinnamon trade, could form alliances with other merchant families or wealthy landowning families.
** Example Alliances: Karava marrying Govigama, or Salagama marrying Govigama or Karava, depending on mutual wealth and status.

4. Caste Based on Artisans, Craftsmen, and Labor

* Castes like the Kumbal (pottery makers), Rada (metalworkers), Gattara (manual laborers), and Ambalakara (temple servants) were traditionally lower in the social hierarchy, performing manual labor, craftsmanship, and temple duties.
** Marriage Pattern: These castes usually married within their own caste. However, in certain instances, alliances could be made with neighboring castes, though these marriages were typically not seen as prestigious or desirable by higher-status families.
** Example Alliances: Kumbal families marrying within Kumbal or with other artisan communities, or Gattara marrying within their caste.

5. Lower Castes and Menial Labor

* Castes like Vahumpura, Saliya, and Ambalakara were considered the lowest in the traditional hierarchy, and their roles were tied to cleaning, servitude, and manual labor.
** Marriage Pattern: Members of these castes generally married within their own caste due to the strict rules of social hierarchy. Marriages outside these castes were rare and often frowned upon due to the social stigma.
** Example Alliances: Vahumpura marrying within Vahumpura, Saliya marrying within Saliya, and Ambalakara marrying within Ambalakara.

General Patterns of Inter-Caste Marriage

* Within Caste Marriages: The most common practice was that individuals married within their own caste. Castes had defined social roles and marriages within the caste helped preserve these roles and social structures.
* Marriages Between Castes of Similar Status: Some castes, especially those that were economically wealthy or influential (like Govigama, Karava, and Salagama), could intermarry. However, these marriages often depended on wealth, social standing, and shared cultural practices.
* Marriage between High and Lower Castes: Marriages between the highest castes (such as Radala or Navandanna) and lower castes (such as Gattara or Saliya) were very rare, as social and cultural barriers would prevent such unions. However, there were exceptions in some cases.

Southern castes

There are still differences between the caste structures of the highlands and those of the low country, although some service groups were common to both in ancient Sri Lanka. The southwestern coast has three other castes (the Salagama, the Durava and the Karava) in addition to the majority of ancient Govigama, which is common throughout the region. Some of these castes' ancestors are believed to have migrated from Southern India and have become important in the Sinhalese social system. The first-century BC Anuradhapura Abayagiri inscription referring to a ''Karava Devika'' may be the first reference to a specialized occupation.

Sri Lankan Tamil castes

The caste system has stronger religious ties than its Sinhalese counterpart, although both systems have comparable castes. There are in the Sri Lankan Tamil caste system, distinctions between Northern and Eastern societies and also the agricultural, coastal and artisanal societies.

The agricultural society has mainly the castes of the Sri Lankan Vellalar who make more than half of the Tamil population in srilanka, Nalavar and Koviyar, where the Vellalar and the Koviyar castes are the dominating ones, particularly in Northern Sri Lanka. They constitute approximately half of the Sri Lankan Tamil population and are the major land owning and agricultural caste.

The Northern and Western coastal societies are dominated by the Karaiyars, who are traditionally a seafaring and warrior caste. The Paravar and the Thimilar are also among the coastal communities involved in fishing. The Paravars or Bharathas are traditionally found in the western part of the island in the Mannar region, who many also are descendants from South Indian Paravar traders and seamen who settled there under Portuguese rule. The Mukkuvars, traditional pearl divers in western Sri Lanka, dominate greater parts of Eastern Sri Lanka where they are the major landowners also involved in agriculture. The Mukkuvars are largely Muslims or Roman Catholic in the Puttalam region of the western part of the island, and predominantly Hindus in the eastern part of the island.

The artisans, known locally as Kammalar or Vishwakarma consists of the Kannar (brass-workers), Kollar (blacksmiths), Tattar (goldsmiths), Tatchar (carpenters), Kartatchar (sculptor). Along with the Kammalar were the Ambattar (barbers), Kadaiyar (lime burners), Koviar (farmers), Kusavar (potters), Maraiyar (conch blowers), Nattuvar (musician), Nalavar (toddy-tappers), Pallar (farmers), Paraiyar (drummers and weavers), Turumbar (dhobies) and Vannar (dhobies) the domestic servants termed as ''Kudimakkal''. The Kudimakkal gave ritual importance in marriage, funeral and other temple ceremonies.

A few slave castes exist as well. One caste called the Demalagattaru were an ancient caste of Tamil captives during times of war between Sinhalese and Tamil.

Other Sri Lankan Tamil castes of importance are the eastern Vellalars, Cantar (oil-presser), Iyer (priests), Madapalli (former royal cooks), Seerpadar (cultivators), kaikolar (cotton-weavers), Siviyar (royal palanquin bearers) and Maravar (Warrior). The Sri Lankan Chetties, traditional merchants, along with the Bharatha people, traditional sea-traders, are both colonial South Indian migrant castes and listed as their own ethnicities in Sri Lankan census. The Coast Veddas, found mainly in Eastern Sri Lanka are considered a Tamil caste among the Sri Lankan Tamils.

The village deities of the Sri Lankan Tamils are also shaped by the caste structure. The Sri Lankan Moors don't practice the caste system, however, follow a ''matriclan'' system which is an extension of Tamil tradition.

Indian Tamil castes

The Tolkāppiyam Porulatikaram indicating the four-fold division is the earliest Tamil literature to mention caste. Sangam literature however mentions only five ''kudis'' associated with the five . Colonialism also had influenced the caste system.

Indian Tamils or Tamils of Indian origin (Hill Country Tamils, who were Indians brought to the island by the British as indentured labour) and the group of Indian Tamil people who migrated to Sri Lanka as merchants also follows the Indian caste system form which is called ''jāti''. Their caste structure resembles that of a Tamil Nadu village.

Those who are considered to be of higher castes occupy the first row of line rooms, and that sect includes Maravar, Kallar, Agamudaiyar, Mudaliyar (kaikolars), Mutharaiyar (Watch mans) etc. They perform respectable jobs such as factory work and grinding of tea as minor labour work, on the other hand, they are also involved in business activities. Even though they belong to the labour category under the British rule and post-independence of the country, they were influential among conductors, tea makers, k''anganese'' (or supervisors), and other officials. The workers considered low caste live in the dwellings that are away from the centre and these dwellings are called ''distant'' or ''lower lines''. This group consists of Paraiyars, Sakkiliar, washers and barbers. The yard sweepers and changes of clothes are in the lowest rank.

See also

* Social class in Sri Lanka
*Caste system in India
**Caste-related violence in India

References

Citations

Bibliography

*
*
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* Social Change in 19th century Ceylon. Patrick Peebles. 1995, Navrang
* The adaptable peasant: agrarian society in western Sri Lanka under Dutch rule, 1740–1800, Nirmal Ranjith Dewasiri, , p. 201
* Paranavithana S. 1970 Inscriptions of Ceylon Vol I Early Brahmi Inscriptions

An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon in the East Indies by Robert Knox

The International Dalit Solidarity Network: The Caste System in Sri Lanka

External links

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Sinhalese castes
Caste system in Sri Lanka
Society of Sri Lanka
Feudalism in Asia
Sri Lanka