Canopic Jars
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Canopic jars are funerary vessels that were used by the
ancient Egyptians Ancient Egypt () was a cradle of civilization concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in Northeast Africa. It emerged from prehistoric Egypt around 3150BC (according to conventional Egyptian chronology), when Upper and Lower ...
to house embalmed organs that were removed during the
mummification A mummy is a dead human or an animal whose soft tissues and organs have been preserved by either intentional or accidental exposure to chemicals, extreme cold, very low humidity, or lack of air, so that the recovered body does not decay furt ...
process. They also served to store and preserve the viscera of their soul for the afterlife. Use of the jars dates back to the
Old Kingdom In ancient Egyptian history, the Old Kingdom is the period spanning –2200 BC. It is also known as the "Age of the Pyramids" or the "Age of the Pyramid Builders", as it encompasses the reigns of the great pyramid-builders of the Fourth Dynast ...
and continued until the Late Period and the
Ptolemaic Period The Ptolemaic Kingdom (; , ) or Ptolemaic Empire was an ancient Greek polity based in Egypt during the Hellenistic period. It was founded in 305 BC by the Macedonian Greek general Ptolemy I Soter, a companion of Alexander the Great, and ruled ...
, after which time the viscera were simply wrapped and placed with the body. Over the course of ancient Egyptian history, various changes were made to the design and style of canopic jars. Contemporaneously, canopic jars are of interest for scientific and medical research.
Cinerary urn An urn is a vase, often with a cover, with a typically narrowed neck above a rounded body and a footed pedestal. Describing a vessel as an "urn", as opposed to a vase or other terms, generally reflects its use rather than any particular shape or ...
s – for holding the ashes of cremated persons – with a head-shaped lid, also sometimes called "canopic", were used by the
Etruscan civilization The Etruscan civilization ( ) was an ancient civilization created by the Etruscans, a people who inhabited Etruria in List of ancient peoples of Italy, ancient Italy, with a common language and culture, and formed a federation of city-states. Af ...
. Though these vessels are sometimes referred to as "canopic urns" or "canopic jars", their purpose and use is not related to the ancient Egyptian use of canopic jars.


Etymology

The term ''canopic'' reflects the mistaken association by early Egyptologists with the Greek legend of
Canopus Canopus is the brightest star in the southern constellation of Carina (constellation), Carina and the list of brightest stars, second-brightest star in the night sky. It is also Bayer designation, designated α Carinae, which is Rom ...
– the boat captain of
Menelaus In Greek mythology, Menelaus (; ) was a Greek king of Mycenaean (pre- Dorian) Sparta. According to the ''Iliad'', the Trojan war began as a result of Menelaus's wife, Helen, fleeing to Troy with the Trojan prince Paris. Menelaus was a central ...
on the voyage to Troy – "who was buried at Canopus in the Delta where he was worshipped in the form of a jar". In alternative versions, the name derives from the location Canopus (now Abukir) in the western Nile Delta near Alexandria, where human-headed jars were worshipped as personifications of the god Osiris.


Purpose and Use

The practice of evisceration began early in the
Old Kingdom In ancient Egyptian history, the Old Kingdom is the period spanning –2200 BC. It is also known as the "Age of the Pyramids" or the "Age of the Pyramid Builders", as it encompasses the reigns of the great pyramid-builders of the Fourth Dynast ...
, but the use of canopic jars as storage for the organs was not well established until the
First Intermediate Period The First Intermediate Period, described as a 'dark period' in ancient Egyptian history, spanned approximately 125 years, c. 2181–2055 BC, after the end of the Old Kingdom of Egypt, Old Kingdom. It comprises the seventh Dynasty, Seventh (altho ...
.Spencer, p. 115 During mummification, the lungs, liver, stomach, and intestines were removed from the corpse to prevent
putrefaction Putrefaction is the fifth stage of death, following pallor mortis, livor mortis, algor mortis, and rigor mortis. This process references the breaking down of a body of an animal Post-mortem interval, post-mortem. In broad terms, it can be view ...
of the body. Each organ was salted in
natron Natron is a naturally occurring mixture of sodium carbonate decahydrate ( Na2CO3·10H2O, a kind of soda ash) and around 17% sodium bicarbonate (also called baking soda, NaHCO3) along with small quantities of sodium chloride and sodium sulfate. ...
and placed respectively into one of four canopic jars. Because the ancient Egyptians believed it to be the seat of the soul, the heart was notably not removed in the process of mummification and no canopic jars were made for it. Some canopic jars from the Old Kingdom were found empty and damaged, even in undisturbed tombs, suggesting that canopic jars may have been used symbolically in the burial ritual rather than physically being used to hold the organs. Ancient Egyptians in the
Third Intermediate Period The Third Intermediate Period of ancient Egypt began with the death of Pharaoh Ramesses XI in 1077 BC, which ended the New Kingdom, and was eventually followed by the Late Period. Various points are offered as the beginning for the latt ...
and beyond adopted a similar symbolic practice. Improved embalming techniques made it unnecessary to remove viscera from the body, although the inclusion of canopic jars remained an important aspect of ancient Egyptian burial practices, but were no longer hollowed out for storing the organs."Canopic Jars"
''Digital Egypt for Universities'',
University College London University College London (Trade name, branded as UCL) is a Public university, public research university in London, England. It is a Member institutions of the University of London, member institution of the Federal university, federal Uni ...
, accessed 18 November 2011
Instead of using the traditional, full-sized, canopic jars much smaller dummy jars were placed in the tombs.


Design

Canopic jars are v-shaped vessels that are hollowed out in the middle and topped with either plain or iconographic stoppers. They ranged in heights from about , including the lid, and in diameters of anywhere from . The most common materials used to make the jars include wood, limestone, faience, and clay, and the design was occasionally accompanied by painted on facial features, names of the deceased or the gods, and/or burial spells. Early canopic jars were placed inside a
canopic chest Canopic chests are cases used by ancient Egyptians to contain the internal organs removed during the process of mummification. Once canopic jars began to be used in the late Fourth Dynasty, the jars were placed within canopic chests. Although th ...
and buried in tombs together with the sarcophagus of the dead.Budge, p. 240 Later, they were sometimes arranged in rows beneath the bier, or at the four corners of the chamber. The earliest and most common versions of canopic jars were made from
stone In geology, rock (or stone) is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloid matter. It is categorized by the minerals included, its Chemical compound, chemical composition, and the way in which it is formed. Rocks ...
, but later styles were carved from wood.Shaw and Nicholson, p. 59
Old Kingdom In ancient Egyptian history, the Old Kingdom is the period spanning –2200 BC. It is also known as the "Age of the Pyramids" or the "Age of the Pyramid Builders", as it encompasses the reigns of the great pyramid-builders of the Fourth Dynast ...
canopic jars were rarely inscribed and had a plain lid. By the Middle Kingdom inscriptions became more common, and the lids were often in the form of human heads. By the
Nineteenth Dynasty The Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt (notated Dynasty XIX), also known as the Ramessid dynasty, is classified as the second Dynasty of the Ancient Egyptian New Kingdom period, lasting from 1292 BC to 1189 BC. The 19th Dynasty and the 20th Dynasty fu ...
each of the four lids depicted one of the
four sons of Horus The four sons of Horus were a group of four ancient Egyptian deities, deities in ancient Egyptian religion who were believed to protect deceased people in the ancient Egyptian afterlife beliefs, afterlife. Beginning in the First Intermediate Peri ...
, who acted as guardians for the respective organs in each jar.


Old Kingdom Canopic Jars

The original style of the jars from the
Old Kingdom In ancient Egyptian history, the Old Kingdom is the period spanning –2200 BC. It is also known as the "Age of the Pyramids" or the "Age of the Pyramid Builders", as it encompasses the reigns of the great pyramid-builders of the Fourth Dynast ...
were carved from smooth stone materials, usually limestone, and was paired with an equally smooth and unadorned round stopper. Towards the end of the Old Kingdom period the use of canopic jars became more widespread and variety in design and style of the funerary vessels became more common, including some canopic jars made of pottery, rather than stone. Lucie Jirásková: ''Damage and repairs of the Old Kingdom canopic jars – the case at Abusir.'' In: ''Prague Egyptological Studies.'' 15, 2015, , pp. 76–85,
online
.


Human Headed Canopic Jars

It was not until the
First Intermediate Period The First Intermediate Period, described as a 'dark period' in ancient Egyptian history, spanned approximately 125 years, c. 2181–2055 BC, after the end of the Old Kingdom of Egypt, Old Kingdom. It comprises the seventh Dynasty, Seventh (altho ...
that stoppers in the shape of human heads became prevalent. The human heads represented the iconized embodiments of the four sons of Horus in their human form and were the predominant styling for the jars through ancient Egypt until the
New Kingdom New or NEW may refer to: Music * New, singer of K-pop group The Boyz * ''New'' (album), by Paul McCartney, 2013 ** "New" (Paul McCartney song), 2013 * ''New'' (EP), by Regurgitator, 1995 * "New" (Daya song), 2017 * "New" (No Doubt song), 1 ...
in the
Nineteenth Dynasty The Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt (notated Dynasty XIX), also known as the Ramessid dynasty, is classified as the second Dynasty of the Ancient Egyptian New Kingdom period, lasting from 1292 BC to 1189 BC. The 19th Dynasty and the 20th Dynasty fu ...
.


New Kingdom Canopic Jars

During the
New Kingdom New or NEW may refer to: Music * New, singer of K-pop group The Boyz * ''New'' (album), by Paul McCartney, 2013 ** "New" (Paul McCartney song), 2013 * ''New'' (EP), by Regurgitator, 1995 * "New" (Daya song), 2017 * "New" (No Doubt song), 1 ...
period the style of canopic jars transitioned to the more well-known depiction of animal heads.Shaw and Nicholson, p. 60 Many higher-quality sets from this period were crafted from minerals such as alabaster, aragonite, calcareous stone, and blue or green glazed porcelain.Budge, p. 240


Religious significance

Following the
Nineteenth Dynasty The Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt (notated Dynasty XIX), also known as the Ramessid dynasty, is classified as the second Dynasty of the Ancient Egyptian New Kingdom period, lasting from 1292 BC to 1189 BC. The 19th Dynasty and the 20th Dynasty fu ...
canopic jars stylistically were carved to represent the four sons of Horus. Each of Horus's sons, along with a companion goddess, were responsible for protecting a particular organ and represented a cardinal direction: * Hapi: the baboon-headed god representing the North was protected by the goddess
Nephthys Nephthys or Nebet-Het in ancient Egyptian () was a goddess in ancient Egyptian religion. A member of the Great Ennead of Heliopolis in Egyptian mythology, she was a daughter of Nut and Geb. Nephthys was typically paired with her sister Isis ...
and was assigned to the lungs; *
Duamutef The four sons of Horus were a group of four deities in ancient Egyptian religion who were believed to protect deceased people in the afterlife. Beginning in the First Intermediate Period of Egyptian history ( 2181–2055 BC), Imsety, Hapy, Duamut ...
: the jackal-headed god representing the East was protected by the goddess
Neith Neith (, a borrowing of the Demotic (Egyptian), Demotic form , also spelled Nit, Net, or Neit) was an ancient Egyptian deity, possibly of Ancient Libya, Libyan origin. She was connected with warfare, as indicated by her emblem of two crossed b ...
and was assigned to the stomach; * Imseti: the human-headed god representing the South was protected by the goddess
Isis Isis was a major goddess in ancient Egyptian religion whose worship spread throughout the Greco-Roman world. Isis was first mentioned in the Old Kingdom () as one of the main characters of the Osiris myth, in which she resurrects her sla ...
and was assigned to the liver; * Qebehsenuef: the falcon-headed god representing the West was protected by the goddess
Serket Serket /ˈsɜːrˌkɛt/ (Ancient Egyptian: ''srqt'') is the goddess of protection against the venomous stings and bites of scorpions in Egyptian mythology. She was primarily worshiped in Lower Egypt during the Predynastic Period (c. 6000 – c ...
and was assigned to the intestines.


Variations in Archaeological Evidence


Didibastet

In 2020, various news articles announced that excavations at
Saqqara Saqqara ( : saqqāra ), also spelled Sakkara or Saccara in English , is an Egyptian village in the markaz (county) of Badrashin in the Giza Governorate, that contains ancient burial grounds of Egyptian royalty, serving as the necropolis for ...
showed that a woman called Didibastet, whose 2,600-year-old undisturbed tomb was discovered behind a stone wall, was entombed with six canopic jars instead of the traditional four. A
CT scan A computed tomography scan (CT scan), formerly called computed axial tomography scan (CAT scan), is a medical imaging technique used to obtain detailed internal images of the body. The personnel that perform CT scans are called radiographers or ...
revealed that the jars contain human tissue, suggesting that the addition of extra canopic jars during Didibastet's mummification was possibly the result of a specific request.


Canopic Jar Repairs

Old Kingdom canopic jars from the fifth dynasty showed evidence of damage and subsequent repairs were made to the structure of the vessels at some point in antiquity. Gypsum or plaster materials were used to mend the damage and patch breaks. Despite showing obvious signs of wear and repair, these canopic jars were still entombed with the mummy. Lucie Jirásková: ''Damage and repairs of the Old Kingdom canopic jars – the case at Abusir.'' In: ''Prague Egyptological Studies.'' 15, 2015, , pp. 76–85,
online
.


Research and Study

Because of the uniqueness of their contents, canopic jars are of particular interest to scientists and bioarchaeologists. They present a unique opportunity to study the biology of ancient Egyptians. Special interest has been taken to the possibility of pathogen research from visceral remains although many challenges exist making extensive research difficult to pursue.


DNA Analysis

Research has been conducted into the feasibility of DNA analysis of visceral contents of canopic jars. Researchers have hoped to find more information on pathogens or diseases that may have been prevalent in ancient Egypt. Such studies have generally been unsuccessful due to a substantial lack of viable DNA.


Imaging Studies

Imaging studies have been conducted on canopic jars, including CT Scans, MRI Imaging, and x-ray scans to better view and understand the process of mummification in relation to the organs removed and the possible medical information to be learned from the viscera stored in canopic jars.


Etruscan cinerary urns

upright=1.0, Etruscan cinerary urn Since the Villanovan era, the ashes of some high-ranking
Etruscan __NOTOC__ Etruscan may refer to: Ancient civilization *Etruscan civilization (1st millennium BC) and related things: **Etruscan language ** Etruscan architecture **Etruscan art **Etruscan cities **Etruscan coins **Etruscan history **Etruscan myt ...
deceased were placed into
urns An urn is a vase, often with a cover, with a typically narrowed neck above a rounded body and a footed pedestal. Describing a vessel as an "urn", as opposed to a vase or other terms, generally reflects its use rather than any particular shape ...
which, almost as if to evoke physical integrity after
cremation Cremation is a method of Disposal of human corpses, final disposition of a corpse through Combustion, burning. Cremation may serve as a funeral or post-funeral rite and as an alternative to burial. In some countries, including India, Nepal, and ...
, were covered with a
helmet A helmet is a form of protective gear worn to protect the head. More specifically, a helmet complements the skull in protecting the human brain. Ceremonial or symbolic helmets (e.g., a policeman's helmet in the United Kingdom) without protecti ...
. This also helped distinguish one burial from another.Didactic displays in the National Archaeological Museum of Chiusi During the 7th century BCE, this practice developed in
Chiusi Chiusi ( Etruscan: ''Clevsin''; Umbrian: ''Camars''; Ancient Greek: ''Klysion'', ''Κλύσιον''; Latin: ''Clusium'') is a town and ''comune'' in the province of Siena, Tuscany, Italy. History Clusium (''Clevsin or Camars'' in Etruscan) ...
and its surrounding territory with the creation of
ossuaries An ossuary is a chest, box, building, well, or site made to serve as the final resting place of human skeletal remains. They are frequently used where burial space is scarce. A body is first buried in a temporary grave, then after some years th ...
made from a globular bronze vase, placed on a throne and in front of a symbolic table (''trapeza''), as if to depict the deceased during a banquet, surrounded by symbols of power and social status. The earliest examples had a hemispherical dome-shaped lid, known as a "champagne cork" type, which in some cases featured rudimentary facial features. Towards the end of the century, this representation became even more explicit, with the lid taking the shape of a face and, in more advanced examples, evolving into a fully sculpted head, sometimes featuring holes where hair, beards, and earrings could be inserted. Etruscologists later referred to this form as "canopic jars" due to its resemblance to Egyptian ones, though its function was entirely different—not for holding viscera but for containing cremated remains. This burial style remained in use until the 6th century BCE. In the most elaborate examples, the funerary urns included additional anthropomorphic elements such as arms (sometimes attached separately) and breasts in the case of female canopic urns. However, it would be inaccurate to consider them true portraits, as their physical features were fairly standardized and reduced to a few typologies. Their purpose was to provide a general identification of the deceased rather than a faithful reproduction of their appearance.


See also

*
Jar burial Jar burial is a human burial custom where the corpse is placed into a large earthenware container and then interred. Jar burials are a repeated pattern at a site or within an archaeological culture. When an anomalous burial is found in which a co ...
* *
Ushabti The ushabti (also called shabti or shawabti, with a number of variant spellings) was a funerary figurine used in ancient Egyptian funerary practices. The Egyptological term is derived from , which replaced earlier , perhaps the nisba of " ...


Notes


References


Bibliography

* * * * * * * Laemmel, Sabine. "Clay Canopic Jars: An Example from TT23 and Its Typological and Historical Context." And the Earth ıs Joyous, Essays in Honour of Galina A. Belova, (Eds. SV Ivanov-EG Tolmacheva), CES RAS (2015): 153-175. * Elkrim, Abd; Gamil, Ehab (January 1, 2024). "Three Canopic Jars from El-Matariya in the Grand Egyptian Museum (GEM 4964, 4967, 19335)". Shedet. 12 (12): 213–243. doi:10.21608/shedet.2023.174603.1153. ISSN 2356-8704.


Further reading

* {{DEFAULTSORT:Canopic Jar Ancient Egyptian funerary practices category:Etruscan ceramics