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The domestic canary (''Serinus canaria'' forma ''domestica''), often simply known as the canary, is a
domesticated Domestication is a multi-generational mutualistic relationship in which an animal species, such as humans or leafcutter ants, takes over control and care of another species, such as sheep or fungi, to obtain from them a steady supply of reso ...
form of the wild canary, a small
songbird A songbird is a bird belonging to the suborder Passeri of the perching birds (Passeriformes). Another name that is sometimes seen as the scientific or vernacular name is Oscines, from Latin ''oscen'', "songbird". The Passeriformes contains 5,00 ...
in the
finch The true finches are small to medium-sized passerine birds in the family Fringillidae. Finches generally have stout conical bills adapted for eating seeds and nuts and often have colourful plumage. They occupy a great range of habitats where the ...
family Family (from ) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). It forms the basis for social order. Ideally, families offer predictabili ...
originating in the Macaronesian Islands. Over the past 500 years of captivity, a wide variety of coloured, decorative and singing canaries have been bred through selection. The canary has been kept as a
pet A pet, or companion animal, is an animal kept primarily for a person's company or entertainment rather than as a working animal, livestock, or a laboratory animal. Popular pets are often considered to have attractive/ cute appearances, inte ...
for centuries, which began after the European conquests of the islands inhabited by its wild ancestor. They were domesticated and became prized possessions in 17th century Europe, eventually becoming popular even amongst poorer households, largely due to its melodious song and flexibility in breeding. They were also a highly popular pet in the United States from the 19th century until the mid 20th century. Canaries have also been used in the
coal mining Coal mining is the process of resource extraction, extracting coal from the ground or from a mine. Coal is valued for its Energy value of coal, energy content and since the 1880s has been widely used to Electricity generation, generate electr ...
industry to detect
carbon monoxide Carbon monoxide (chemical formula CO) is a poisonous, flammable gas that is colorless, odorless, tasteless, and slightly less dense than air. Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom connected by a triple bond. It is the si ...
, a practice that has since been ceased. Domestic canaries come in a wide variety of different
plumage Plumage () is a layer of feathers that covers a bird and the pattern, colour, and arrangement of those feathers. The pattern and colours of plumage differ between species and subspecies and may vary with age classes. Within species, there can b ...
colours, unlike its wild ancestor which are usually grey or light green. The most well-known, stereotypical plumage colour of canaries is bright
yellow Yellow is the color between green and orange on the spectrum of light. It is evoked by light with a dominant wavelength of roughly 575585 nm. It is a primary color in subtractive color systems, used in painting or color printing. In t ...
, which has even given a name to a specific shade of yellow referred to as Canary Yellow. Singing canaries are the only pets whose voice and vocalisations have been influenced by humans to alter their sounds. The Harz Roller breed of singing canary has achieved wide fame in this field.


Description

The domestic canary is a domesticated form of its wild ancestor, which are named after
Spain Spain, or the Kingdom of Spain, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe with territories in North Africa. Featuring the Punta de Tarifa, southernmost point of continental Europe, it is the largest country in Southern Eur ...
's
Canary Islands The Canary Islands (; ) or Canaries are an archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean and the southernmost Autonomous communities of Spain, Autonomous Community of Spain. They are located in the northwest of Africa, with the closest point to the cont ...
. Common canaries are approximately to long, and weigh approximately to . There are decorative canaries that range from (e.g. the Fife Fancy) to (e.g. the Lancashire) long. The canary is distinguished by the harmonious shape of the finch - a round, formed head and a short, pin-shaped beak. Given proper housing and care, a canary's lifespan ranges from 7 to 12, or 10 to 15 years. Typically, the domestic canary is kept as a
cage A cage is an enclosure often made of mesh, bars, or wires, used to confine, contain or protect something or someone. A cage can serve many purposes, including keeping an animal or person in captivity, capturing an animal or person, and displayi ...
and
aviary An aviary is a large enclosure for confining birds, although bats may also be considered for display. Unlike birdcages, aviaries allow birds a larger living space where Bird flight, they can fly; hence, aviaries are also sometimes known as flig ...
bird. The cage is placed in a well-lit place, but not in the sun (unless in winter), not on a window, and not in a draft. It enjoys some year-round sun, although in some warm regions it can die if kept in sunny areas without filtered shade. It should be wide enough to allow them to jump and fly around. The bottom of the cage should be cleaned regularly to prevent disease. Canaries can be housed together in an aviary during their resting period outside of the breeding season. They regularly require a water dish for bathing themselves, and need their nails clipped after once in a while, although with extra care to prevent injury. Toys provide mental and physical stimulation: canaries enjoy mirrors, bells that make sound, leather straps and swings and ladders. Colour-bred canaries may have specific care requirements like diet to preserve their plumage colours annually. The quality and activity of singing, reproduction, and longevity of the bird depend on the correct maintenance and care of the bird. Being a monomorphic species, it is difficult to determine the sex of canaries by their appearance or colour intensity. A key fact is that most males sing, while most females do not, and those females who do sing won't produce the intensity and loudness of the male's. Canary keepers have used various unpublished methods to determine the sex, one theory being that the beak line and eye alignment differs, although even experienced breeders have mistyped the sex. Genital differences may be observed around the
cloaca A cloaca ( ), : cloacae ( or ), or vent, is the rear orifice that serves as the only opening for the digestive (rectum), reproductive, and urinary tracts (if present) of many vertebrate animals. All amphibians, reptiles, birds, cartilagin ...
of a canary, but these are only noticeable around the peak of the breeding season.


Behaviour

Male canaries sing to attract mates and establish territory, and begin singing early in the morning. The light cycle has a direct effect on a canary's singing quality. Most females do not sing, but would still chirp. Research has suggested that males may use techniques singing certain notes that females would find particularly attractive. When canaries want to express mutual affection, they peck at each other; extensive mutual preening, as we know it from finches, is not common in canaries. Canaries communicate through calls and song. They respond to the warning calls of other birds, meaning they understand sounds unrelated to their species. When excited, canaries may jump from perch to perch in a cage or express it through various chirping sounds. The canary is a solitary bird, introverted in human terms, and they are normally comfortable living alone in a cage. They are not hands-on with humans and tend to be skittish around them. While by no means as tame as budgies and companion parrots, they can still, with patience, be tamed and trained to the point where they would willingly approach humans and sit on their hands or shoulders. German
royal court A royal court, often called simply a court when the royal context is clear, is an extended royal household in a monarchy, including all those who regularly attend on a monarch, or another central figure. Hence, the word ''court'' may also be app ...
s during the 18th century were noted to have had sensory closeness and emotional bonds with canaries. Tips were circulated on how to accustom the canaries to come and sit on a person's hand or fingers. Canaries are believed to be intelligent.
Moulting In biology, moulting (British English), or molting (American English), also known as sloughing, shedding, or in many invertebrates, ecdysis, is a process by which an animal casts off parts of its body to serve some beneficial purpose, either at ...
occurs between August and October (Northern Hemisphere), during the longer days of summer, and has full plumage for finding a mate and breeding during the shorter days of autumn and winter. During the longer summer days it is not unusual for the male canary to stop singing as new feathers are developing. Healthy birds shed their plumage within six to eight weeks. Young birds shed only their small feathers during their first year. Birds that are not fed and cared for optimally can be particularly vulnerable and health-stable during the moulting season. This can lead to a winter or spring moult. A canary can be territorial when living together with other canaries or similar sized birds. Canaries always maintain an individual distance from one another, which even paired partners consistently maintain and defend. Outside of the breeding season, canaries are peaceful and sociable birds and can be kept as a group in an aviary during this time. In an aviary, a hierarchy is established within the group, after which disputes rarely arise and most fights are over coveted food or a preferred perch. Often, the fight is limited to mutual threats, after which the weaker bird gives up. They usually express threats with open beaks and raised wings. During the breeding season, the males establish territories and often defend them fiercely. This can lead to beak fights and chases that could be bloody. Therefore, multiple males should not be kept in one aviary during this time.


Biology


Reproduction

The canary's breeding season begins in spring. Males intensify their singing and also engage in chases and beak fights against rivals. The female frequently emits a trilling mating call and flaps her wings. She is constantly on the move. If the female is broody, she takes nesting material in her beak and searches for a suitable nesting site (nest-building ceremony). Mating lasts one to two seconds. The female builds the nest in nesting supports in the form of baskets or semi-open nesting boxes. Canaries will use any materials provided by the bird keeper; suitable natural materials may include grass blades, moss, animal hair, wool and feathers, or special nesting materials such as coconut fibre, wood shavings (for the nest base), and lint (for lining the nest). While building the nest, the male sings continuously and feeds his female. Once the female has completed her nest, she lays the first egg, almost always early in the morning. Canaries often begin incubating immediately after laying their first egg. With canaries, it is common for the female to incubate alone and not be relieved by the male. She leaves the nest several times a day to defecate and drink. The rest of the time, the male provides the female with food from his crop. The incubation period lasts about 14 days. On the day they hatch, the young live off the yolk sac; they are brooded by the female and not fed until the next day. During the first few days of the young's life, the male takes over the task of finding the food and passes it from his crop to the female. The female regurgitates this food from her crop and feeds the young with the twice-soaked food mush. On the 16th day, the young leave the nest but are still fed by their parents until the 30th day. After three to four months, the now independent young birds complete their juvenile moult, during which only the small feathers, excluding wing and tail feathers, are replaced, and are sexually mature.


Diet

Canaries are granivorous animals, meaning they feed on grains and seeds that they find in their habitat. Canary breeders usually feed them with mixtures, which can be found commercially or made at home, using high-quality seeds, such as: canary seed, millet, linseed, rapeseed, radish seed, lettuce seed, endive seed, oats, hemp seed, and niger seed. Canaries also feed on vegetables, fruits, and legumes, which are very important for providing them with a large amount of vitamins. This includes fresh greens and vegetables such as lettuce leaves, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, and grated carrots, fruits such as apples, pears and oranges, chickweed, and wild herbs such as dandelions. During breeding, it is beneficial to supplement this with egg food. This encourages the parents to feed and allows for better development of the chicks. It should be supplemented with chicken eggs, gelatine, breadcrumbs, or biscuit crumbs. Cuttlefish bone can also be given to provide the calcium needed for proper eggshell formation. During feeding, chicks are provided with live insects and a soft, protein-rich diet, along with sprouted seeds.


Diseases

Parasites Parasitism is a close relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives (at least some of the time) on or inside another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and is adapted structurally to this way of life. The en ...
are the most common cause of canaries' illness. Stress-induced immune deficiencies cause bacteria (salmonella, Escherichia coli) in the intestines to multiply to such an extent that bacterial enteritis develops. The affected canary develops diarrhoea and dies of dehydration within a few days. Other illnesses include broken wings, legs, and toes. Cataracts can also occur. Another cause of the disease is the canarypox virus. Infection occurs through infected birds or through mosquitoes as carriers. The incubation period is three to 16 days. Characteristic symptoms of this disease are nodules on the horns and at the corners of the beak, severe respiratory problems and death by suffocation or survival as a virus carrier. Ornithosis, which has no clear symptoms, is difficult to diagnose and must be reported. Symptoms over a longer period include complaints such as shortness of breath, diarrhoea, a runny nose or mucous secretions. Canaries can also become infected with atypical avian influenza (Newcastle disease). This disease is contagious for humans, who then develop conjunctivitis. It is transmitted through raw chicken eggshells or wild birds. One way to monitor the health of domestic canaries is to observe the colour of their droppings. The faeces should be a clear black, and the urine, after drying, should be off-white. Canaries often die with little warning, and without clear reason.


Song

The canary's song consists of syllables, grouped into phrases that are arranged in flexible sequences. Phrases are defined by a fundamental time-scale that is independent of the underlying syllable duration. The song begins with a variable, soft introduction of a few syllables and culminates in a very loud verse of hard descending syllables. The male sings very long stanzas built from many verses or phrases. The vocal repertoire is stable and usually includes 30 to 40 different individual syllables. In addition, the canary can distinguish sequences of sounds, store them in memory and reproduce them. Therefore, it can learn the song inherent to the species. It can imitate the sounds and sequences of sounds of other birds, and also include other people's noises in its own singing. Some of the canary's song is innate, but individual learning also occurs. The song pattern and the verse, with its specific notes and rhythm, are genetically determined. However, the fine structures (syllables) are open to learning, and experience is gained by listening to songs of their own species. The father's example is very important, but the young also learn from other males and young birds of the same age. This learning ability is particularly encouraged in singing schools. Some syllables are formed without any recognisable models, allowing the canary to improvise. Females normally do not sing; Dutch researcher Tessa Hartog suggested that they would start singing with increased
testosterone Testosterone is the primary male sex hormone and androgen in Male, males. In humans, testosterone plays a key role in the development of Male reproductive system, male reproductive tissues such as testicles and prostate, as well as promoting se ...
that influence the part of their brains that control singing. Canaries also learn from human provided sounds. For example, in pre-revolution Russia, the local bred canaries had even learnt to sing the national anthem, God Save The Tsar!. After the first breeding season is over, the males sing less and less and eventually stop singing altogether (refractory period). After the annual change of plumage, the moult, they sing the autumn song. This is far more vivid than the full song, meaning it has no fixed temporal structure, but the individual elements are also much more variable. The pauses vary in length, and the ratio of tours to syllables is strongly skewed in favour of the latter. In winter and spring, the song then begins to stabilise again until it reaches full song level again in the next breeding season. The song may have changed slightly compared to the previous year: some syllables have remained the same, others have been forgotten, and as a result the canary may create new melodies. During the breeding season, females sing only occasionally. After the end of their last brood, around July, they spontaneously sing the summer song. From autumn until the beginning of the next breeding season, they sing the autumn song. Females sing most frequently in October. For newborns, male canaries start to learn to sing after about 30 to 40 days. This first phase of learning (subsong) lasts until shortly before the juvenile moult. Before the juvenile moult begins, the bird is silent for about two weeks. Only between the 70th and 90th day does the second learning phase (plastic song) begin, which lasts until about the 150th day of life. After the juvenile moult, the third phase of vocal training begins (juvenile autumn song), which lasts until about the 250th day of life. During this time, talent can already be seen, so that the singing canary can enter what is known as singing school. By the breeding season of the following year, around the 300th day of life, the canary has completed its apprenticeship and reached full song, which it maintains throughout the breeding season. Closely related to singing is the canary's ability to hear. Optimal sensitivity is between 3200 Hz and 4000 Hz. The lower threshold of hearing is at 1100 Hz, and the upper threshold is at 10,000 Hz.


Breeds

Domestic canaries are generally divided into three main groups: those that have been bred for singing capabilities, for their distinctive colours, or for their shape and posture. Many canaries, however, do not necessarily fall in any of these categories as they are not selectively bred, and have variable morphology and colours – these are often called "common canaries".


Song canaries

Song canaries are bred for their unique and specific song patterns. They are often specially trained to sing: a canary around the age of six months old would spend time for a few weeks alone in a cage, exposed to the sound of their conspecifics but not distracted by territorial fights. The canaries would gradually learn different verses. Many different types of song canaries have been bred with distinct sounds: the COM (World Ornithological Confederation) officially recognises three distinct song-bred breeds, which are written below. ;Main breeds The Harz Roller, first bred in the
Harz Mountains The Harz (), also called the Harz Mountains, is a Mittelgebirge, highland area in northern Germany. It has the highest elevations for that region, and its rugged terrain extends across parts of Lower Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Thuringia. The nam ...
of Germany, was the first type of canary specifically bred for song. This canary sings in a gentle, melodic way, with a closed beak and an inflated throat. Compared to wild canaries (and other song breeds), the Harzer has a lower pitch with narrower frequencies. Its deep song can be musically classified in the bass register. Its base consists of a continuous rhythm outputting at least 40 notes per second. The Belgian Waterslager is known for its rather loud yet lower-pitched sound that mimics the babbling of
water Water is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula . It is a transparent, tasteless, odorless, and Color of water, nearly colorless chemical substance. It is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all known liv ...
. They were first bred in
Antwerp Antwerp (; ; ) is a City status in Belgium, city and a Municipalities of Belgium, municipality in the Flemish Region of Belgium. It is the capital and largest city of Antwerp Province, and the third-largest city in Belgium by area at , after ...
and
Mechelen Mechelen (; ; historically known as ''Mechlin'' in EnglishMechelen has been known in English as ''Mechlin'', from where the adjective ''Mechlinian'' is derived. This name may still be used, especially in a traditional or historical context. T ...
and its name was coined in 1905, coming from the Dutch words for water and butcher; its French name is ''Malinois''. The Waterslager's song is described as being striking, somewhat similar to a
nightingale The common nightingale, rufous nightingale or simply nightingale (''Luscinia megarhynchos''), is a small passerine bird which is best known for its powerful and beautiful song. It was formerly classed as a member of the thrush family Turdidae, ...
's, alternating between high and low notes, and an emphasis on the 'water' chime (Dutch: klokkende). The song is characterised by a sequence of repeated sound utterances, also called tone syllables. Like the Harz Roller, it sings with a closed beak, but may open for higher notes. Despite being a song-bred canary, the Waterslager also has other characteristics: it has a slightly bent forward posture with a relatively small head, standing on rather high legs, and an approximate size of . They have yellow plumage, sometimes with light spots. Research has shown that, compared to other breeds, the Belgian Waterslager has abnormal hair cells that contribute to high-frequency hearing loss. The Spanish Timbrado has been bred as an evolution of the wild canary. Its song is the loudest of the three main song breeds, with a powerful metallic voice (high tonal range) and an open beak, consisting of 12 notes. It has a variation in its song, with very short verses and in constant alteration, and a repertoire that consists of a contrast of various tonal layers. Originating in the early 20th century, the name 'Timbrado' is Spanish for "ringing" ('timbre' means "bell"). Females of this variety are able to sing and better than those of other breeds. While it is permitted in various colours, most Timbrados are variegated green/yellow/mottled, resembling the wild canary. It averages approximately in length and has a notched tail, like its wild ancestor. Development of the Timbrado has led to distinct variations, sub-categorised into the Classics (continuous tours, i.e. timbres and rolled variations) and Floreados (discontinuous notes, i.e. clear break between syllables). ;Other canaries There are more song-bred canary breeds. The American Singer was developed from a Harz Roller and a Border Fancy (a type canary). Its ability for rolled and chopped notes gives it a variety of singing styles (both high and low on the tonal range) and an overall balance. While sounding close to a Harz, the American is able to sing with an open beak. It also takes into account its appearance and variety of colours. The American Singer was first bred in
Boston Boston is the capital and most populous city in the Commonwealth (U.S. state), Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. The city serves as the cultural and Financial centre, financial center of New England, a region of the Northeas ...
by a group of eight female breeders in the 1930s and have been popular in North America. It is not, however, recognised as a distinct breed by the COM. The Russian Canary has a distinctly different song. High-pitched, it has some resemblance to the chirping of a
great tit The great tit (''Parus major'') is a small passerine bird in the tit family Paridae. It is a widespread and common species throughout Europe, the Middle East, Central Asia and east across the Palearctic to the Amur River, south to parts of No ...
. These canaries originated from
Tyrol Tyrol ( ; historically the Tyrole; ; ) is a historical region in the Alps of Northern Italy and western Austria. The area was historically the core of the County of Tyrol, part of the Holy Roman Empire, Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary, f ...
, Germany in the 18th century and its sound was evolved by Russian breeders who were impressed by the canary's mimicking intelligence. They taught their canaries the sounds of local wild birds (including the
yellowhammer The yellowhammer (''Emberiza citrinella'') is a passerine bird in the Emberiza, bunting family that is native to Palearctic, Eurasia and has been introduced species, introduced to New Zealand and Australia. Most European birds remain in the br ...
) and using the likes of organs and flutes. This breed has remained largely unfamiliar outside the Russia and its environ. The song training effectively provided countryside bird sounds to urban residents as in the imperial capital
St Petersburg Saint Petersburg, formerly known as Petrograd and later Leningrad, is the List of cities and towns in Russia by population, second-largest city in Russia after Moscow. It is situated on the Neva, River Neva, at the head of the Gulf of Finland ...
, making them extremely popular in the late 19th century. A number of other song-bred canaries exist such as the Moroccan Flawta. Hailing from northern Morocco, this canary has a melodious tone with slow rhythm and flute-like accents. The Slavujar is another singing breed, who were trained by Serbian breeders to learn the sound of the nightingale. Both the Flawta and Slavujar sit in the middle of the tonal range. The Spanish Singer (Spanish: Cantor Español) was developed from Timbrados with strongly detached song sections without a fixed structure, sung in semi-high and mild-high registers. It was recognised as a distinct breed for the first time by the COM/OMJ in 2017.


Colour canaries

While wild canaries are a yellowish-green colour, domestic canaries have been selectively bred for a wide variety of colours, such as yellow, orange, brown, black, white, red, and more. Coloured canaries can be divided into two broad categories: lipochromic canaries and melanistic canaries. Lipochromic canaries have light plumage and do not exhibit any
melanin Melanin (; ) is a family of biomolecules organized as oligomers or polymers, which among other functions provide the pigments of many organisms. Melanin pigments are produced in a specialized group of cells known as melanocytes. There are ...
; they can be white, yellow, or red. Melanistic canaries have a so-called ground colour (white, yellow, or red) and possess melanins (eumelanins and/or phaeomelanins), adding elements like stripes to the plumage. The white phenotype can be due to two different mutations: recessive white and dominant white. They are distinguished by the fact that a dominant white canary always has some traces of yellow (or red) in its flight feathers, while a recessive white canary is completely white. Coloured canaries would show one of the basic colours and one of the feather textures. Melanin canaries on the other hand would also additionally display melanin colours: this includes a wide variety of specific colour
mutation In biology, a mutation is an alteration in the nucleic acid sequence of the genome of an organism, virus, or extrachromosomal DNA. Viral genomes contain either DNA or RNA. Mutations result from errors during DNA or viral replication, ...
s such as  – Ino, Eumo, Satinette, Bronze, Ivory, Onyx, Mosaic, Brown, red factor, Green (Wild Type): darkest black and brown melanin shade in yellow ground birds, Yellow Melanin: mutation showing yellow ground colour with brown and black pigment, Yellow Lipochrome: mutation creating the loss of brown and black pigment, leaving yellow ground colour etc. The red factor canary is considered to be the first example of a genetically modified animal. It was created by Hans Julius Duncker and Karl Reich in the 1920s through hybridisation with the red siskin (''Spinus cucullatus''), a species of South American finch. Evidence of hybridisation has also been found between the domestic canary and the black-chinned siskin (''Spinus barbatus'') in captivity. Weiss rezessiv.jpg, White recessive Aufgehellt rot weissfluegel intensiv.jpg, Intense red with white wings Schwarz rotmosaik typ1.jpg, Black red mosaic Braun weiss.jpg, Brown white Achat rot schimmel.jpg, Agate red Phaeo gelb intensiv.jpg, Phaeo yellow intense Schwarzonyx weiss.jpg, Black onyx white Kanarienvogel Achat Opal.jpg, Achat opal Rotmosaik T2.JPG, Red mosaic Satinetrotmosaik1.jpg, Satinette red mosaic PhaeorotA1.jpg, Phaeo red intense Achátoví kanáři.JPG, Agate yellow


Type and posture canaries

Type canaries, or posture canaries, are bred for their shape and conformation. Posture canaries can be larger or smaller compared to common (including song-bred and colour-bred) canaries, and may have a unique morphology (egg-shaped, number 7-shaped, etc.). For example, certain breeds may have crests on their head (crested canaries) or have curly plumage (frill canaries). New breeds continue to be developed in the world of posture canaries. Judges of the C.O.M. from all over the world determine whether a new breed is officially recognised, and they often cite that the breed must have a clear distinction and goal. ;Smooth-feathered canaries (small) The Lizard Canary is the oldest breed still in existence, having generally remained in its original form since the early 18th century. They are thought to have originated among
Huguenots The Huguenots ( , ; ) are a Religious denomination, religious group of French people, French Protestants who held to the Reformed (Calvinist) tradition of Protestantism. The term, which may be derived from the name of a Swiss political leader, ...
in France, who migrated to England and brought them along and where they were further bred. It became very popular in England, noted for its stripes, crescent-shaped spots and markings on the feathers of the canary, with its name referring to the
reptile Reptiles, as commonly defined, are a group of tetrapods with an ectothermic metabolism and Amniotic egg, amniotic development. Living traditional reptiles comprise four Order (biology), orders: Testudines, Crocodilia, Squamata, and Rhynchocepha ...
-like pattern on its back and breast. The feathers of the Lizard's cap, in contrast to its body, is clear. After the Second World War depleted stock, the Lizard almost became extinct; an association was formed who successfully preserved and saved the breed from extinction. A closely related breed is the London Fancy, a variegated form of the Lizard. It is distinguished by having dark flight and tail feathers, but with a contrasting body that does not contain melanin in those feathers. It dates to at least the 1820s. In 1903 it was described as "rare, handsome, and expensive". The London went extinct a few decades later, and attempts to revive it failed, until the 21st century when efforts by British and Dutch breeders led to canaries resembling the original being exhibited. While originally yellow-black, variants in yellow-brown, white-black and white-brown have been bred. The Border Fancy canary (originally known as Wee Gem) has a plump, rounded profile and a defined head. Modern Borders are no larger than 5.5". It was bred in the 19th century, named after the border region between Scotland and England, as it was developed in
Cumberland Cumberland ( ) is an area of North West England which was historically a county. The county was bordered by Northumberland to the north-east, County Durham to the east, Westmorland to the south-east, Lancashire to the south, and the Scottish ...
but with strains of Scottish bred canaries across the border. As time went by, especially after the Second World War, the Border became increasingly voluminous and larger, probably due to crossbreeding with the Norwich. The Fife Fancy is a breed with a small size (exceeding no more than 4.5" in length) and a well-proportioned body. Its ideal shape is described as being a "a
cherry A cherry is the fruit of many plants of the genus ''Prunus'', and is a fleshy drupe (stone fruit). Commercial cherries are obtained from cultivars of several species, such as the sweet '' Prunus avium'' and the sour '' Prunus cerasus''. The na ...
on a
pear Pears are fruits produced and consumed around the world, growing on a tree and harvested in late summer into mid-autumn. The pear tree and shrub are a species of genus ''Pyrus'' , in the Family (biology), family Rosaceae, bearing the Pome, po ...
". This canary originates from
Fife Fife ( , ; ; ) is a council areas of Scotland, council area and lieutenancy areas of Scotland, lieutenancy area in Scotland. A peninsula, it is bordered by the Firth of Tay to the north, the North Sea to the east, the Firth of Forth to the s ...
in Scotland, in the 1950s, and was created in response to the growing size of the Border Fancy. As a result, the Fife is considered a miniature version of the Border. In recent decades, it has grown in popularity in Britain. The German Crested (Deutsche Haube) is an old breed and the only type of posture canary that combines colour characteristics of colour canaries with a specific type of crest. They formed the basis of the English Lancashire, Gloster and Crested breeds. Unlike the English breeds (round and full crest), the German breed has a broad, oval shaped crest. The crest should have a small centre point from which the head feathers extend flat in all directions. It measures to . The Gloster Fancy, one of the smaller types of posture canaries, is one of the newer breeds of fancy canaries, having first been exhibited in 1925 and originated from Gloucestershire. The breeders aimed to achieve a miniature size (created from a Border and Crest), and Glosters are often about 4.5 inches in length. There are two variations of the Gloster: the Consort (smooth head) and the Corona (crested). The feather 'wig' on the coronas made them quite popular in the 1960s due to the hairstyles of
The Beatles The Beatles were an English Rock music, rock band formed in Liverpool in 1960. The core lineup of the band comprised John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr. They are widely regarded as the Cultural impact of the Beatle ...
. German breeders developed from the Gloster a new type with a similar round crest but with a rich, bright lipochrome red colour (Deutsche Rotscheke). Such a variety was also made in
Staffordshire Staffordshire (; postal abbreviation ''Staffs''.) is a Ceremonial counties of England, ceremonial county in the West Midlands (region), West Midlands of England. It borders Cheshire to the north-west, Derbyshire and Leicestershire to the east, ...
, England, called the Stafford Canary, which is a cross between the Gloster and the red factor canary. A number of other smaller sized canaries in this category include the extra small Raza (Spanish: Raza Española) with its slim and narrow body shape, the Irish Fancy, a small, upright canary with a slightly rounded head, and the Rheinländer, a crested canary in yellow, red or white, designed to be miniature version of the Lancashire canary. The only type breed canary to have been made in the United States is the Columbus Fancy. This breed originates from the 1930s, named after
Columbus, Ohio Columbus (, ) is the List of capitals in the United States, capital and List of cities in Ohio, most populous city of the U.S. state of Ohio. With a 2020 United States census, 2020 census population of 905,748, it is the List of United States ...
. The Columbus has a broad and full chest, neck and back, and has both plainhead and crested variants. It is 5.5 to 6.0" in length. Deutsche-haube satinet gelb schimmel.jpg, German Crested Gloster corona melanin.jpg, Gloster Fancy (Corona melanin) Gloster-consort.jpg, Gloster Fancy (Consort) De ideale lizard.jpg, Drawing of an 'ideal' Lizard canary Standardbild Fife Fancy.jpg, Drawing of an 'ideal' Fife Canary The illustrated book of canaries and cage-birds, British and foreign BHL32529633.jpg, 1878 illustration of the London Fancy The illustrated book of canaries and cage-birds, British and foreign BHL32529611.jpg, 1878 illustration of the Lizard ;Smooth-feathered canaries (large) The Norwich canary is a breed with a compact, stocky or "bulky" build, and a length of approximately 6.5", in all sorts of colours. The ideal Norwich is described as having a very short neck and nape, a curvy belly, and a broad back, with rounded shapes on all sides (it gained the affectionate nickname of
John Bull John Bull is a national personification of England, especially in political cartoons and similar graphic works. He is usually depicted as a stout, middle-aged, country-dwelling, jolly and matter-of-fact man. He originated in satirical works of ...
), and thick fur. It also has an abundance of feathers, which has caused the unintentional effect of covering part of the eyes on some Norwich canaries. This is not standardised, nor permitted under animal welfare reasons. The modern Norwich was standardised in 1890; an older type of Norwich, which was smaller and known for its reddish-yellow colour, originated in the city of
Norwich Norwich () is a cathedral city and district of the county of Norfolk, England, of which it is the county town. It lies by the River Wensum, about north-east of London, north of Ipswich and east of Peterborough. The population of the Norwich ...
and believed to have entered England through
Calvinists Reformed Christianity, also called Calvinism, is a major branch of Protestantism that began during the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. In the modern day, it is largely represented by the Continental Reformed Christian, Presbyterian, ...
who fled to the country from the
Spanish Netherlands The Spanish Netherlands (; ; ; ) (historically in Spanish: , the name "Flanders" was used as a '' pars pro toto'') was the Habsburg Netherlands ruled by the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs from 1556 to 1714. They were a collection of States of t ...
. It was very popular in 19th century England. One writer in 1906 claimed that the Norwich "sings the best" among the English canary breeds. These old Norwich canaries bear little resemblance to today's. Breeders in Australia, who liked the old style Norwich, developed the Australian plainhead breed. Tied with the history of the Norwich is the Crested Canary (also called Crest Canary), which was originally called the Crested Norwich. Enthusiasts of this type crossbred with the Lancashire Coppy that altered and formed its distinctive crest. These birds were exhibited first in 1879. While they ended up becoming popular, their prices grew to exorbitant numbers by the 1920s. The crest feathers flow in a circular pattern from a centre point on its head, and partially drapes on the tip of its beak and eyes (without obstructing the bird's vision). The Crested is a minimum of 6.75" long. Another English breed is the Cinnamon Canary, a very old breed that was originally bred for its dun or dull-brown colour (likened to
cinnamon Cinnamon is a spice obtained from the inner bark of several tree species from the genus ''Cinnamomum''. Cinnamon is used mainly as an aromatic condiment and flavouring additive in a wide variety of cuisines, sweet and savoury dishes, biscuits, b ...
) before it was interbred with the Norwich. While cinnamon-coloured Norwich canaries exist today, breeders of the Cinammon Canary argue that it remains distinct enough. The Lancashire Canary (originally named Manchester Fancy) is the largest of all English breeds, upstanding erect at approximately 8 inches tall and appearing giant compared to ordinary canaries. The Lancashire may also have a crest ("Coppies") or not have one ("Plainheads"). Lancashires are permitted to be either yellow or white. It has a full chest and broad shoulders. They have been used by breeders to add size to other varieties of canaries. The Lancashire is believed to have originated from an older breed brought into England by Flemings in the 18th century. The old breed disappeared and became extinct after the Second World War. After this, a number of breeders managed to reconstruct it using existing Crested and Yorkshire canaries, which still carried genetic material of the old Lancashire. The Yorkshire Canary is a breed with an upright stance (an approximate angle of 80°), long legs, long folded tail, and a "full" head. It was first developed in
Bradford Bradford is a city status in the United Kingdom, city in West Yorkshire, England. It became a municipal borough in 1847, received a city charter in 1897 and, since the Local Government Act 1972, 1974 reform, the city status in the United Kingdo ...
in the mid-19th century, with breeders aiming to improve upon the Lancashire canary by making it thinner and sleeker. However, as time has gone on, the Yorkshire has shed its original slim form in favour of a beefier type with rounder head, and these are now favoured among breeders. They are bred in all colours and are a minimum of 6.75". Related to the Yorkshire is the Bernese Canary (Berner/Bernois), originating from Switzerland. While its ancestry is not clear, the Bernese was developed with help from the old Yorkshire, and now has distinct characteristics. Llarguet Español is a breed with an elongated, slender body, a small head and long legs. It has a minimum length of and stands at about 60° from the perch. Developed around the mid-20th century (and officially recognised since 2003), "Llarguet" is Catalan for "long". The Persian Rasmi is a long and thin breed, standing naturally at a 50° angle and as long as 9" in length. Its unique striking feature is its tail, which in the best examples would be even longer than the canary's body. The Rasmi was developed from a Yorkshire, Lancashire and Spanish Giboso, and first bred in Iran in the late 1970s, Its
Persian Persian may refer to: * People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language ** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples ** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...
name is Rasmi Boland (). A relatively newer breed is the Portuguese Harlequin (Portuguese: Arlequim Português), becoming recognised by the COM in 2010. Its main characteristics are its triangular chest, and its mottled plumage in many different colours. It stands at about 60° with its head held high, and is measured at . ;Posture canaries All curved posture birds probably go back to the Belgian Fancy, also known as the Belgian Hunchback or Belgian Canary (French: Bossu Belge, Dutch: Belgisch Bult). It has a long neck, an arched back, high prominent and tucked shoulders and relatively small head. It has been described as being "
vulture A vulture is a bird of prey that scavenges on carrion. There are 23 extant species of vulture (including condors). Old World vultures include 16 living species native to Europe, Africa, and Asia; New World vultures are restricted to Nort ...
"-like in shape. By the 1900s, the Belgian was rare, with the First World War contributing further to the loss of the specimen in Belgium, leading it to the verge of extinction. Late in the century, the Belgian has experienced a revival amongst breeders. They measure about 6.75" in length. The Scots Fancy (also known as Scotch Fancy) is known for its bend-back C-shaped posture. Breeders have attempted to make it as close as possible to a semi-circle. This breed was developed from the Belgian canaries in the 19th century and was originally named 'The
Glasgow Glasgow is the Cities of Scotland, most populous city in Scotland, located on the banks of the River Clyde in Strathclyde, west central Scotland. It is the List of cities in the United Kingdom, third-most-populous city in the United Kingdom ...
Don'. They measure at least 6.75" long. Along with its curved tail, the Scots is distinct from the Belgian with its narrow shoulders and a narrow rounded back. The Munich canary (Münchener), originating from Germany, stands at an angle of 45° with a slim body shape and a long neck tilted forward. The Japan Hoso has a posture similar to the Scots Fancy and is no larger than . The Salentino is a newer breed that is similar to the Belgian but has a crest. It was recognised as a breed by the COM in 2020. ;Frill canaries Frill canaries, or coiffed canaries, feature unusual twisted and wavy feathers that may be anywhere on the canary's body. The first mention of the "curly" or "Dutch" canaries can be found in 1852 in a piece by Jules Janin, writing that such birds were introduced to France from Holland and Belgium "20 years ago." However its exact origins are not exactly clear, though it is possible that they may have originated around
Roubaix Roubaix ( , ; ; ; ) is a city in northern France, located in the Lille metropolitan area on the Belgian border. It is a historically mono-industrial Communes of France, commune in the Nord (French department), Nord Departments of France, depar ...
and
Lille Lille (, ; ; ; ; ) is a city in the northern part of France, within French Flanders. Positioned along the Deûle river, near France's border with Belgium, it is the capital of the Hauts-de-France Regions of France, region, the Prefectures in F ...
, in northern France. The North Dutch Frill canary (also called Northern Frill, North Hollander, or Dutch Fancy) has frilling in a band around the centre of its body. It has a notable contrast between the styling on its back, chest and wings. Its body length is 17 to , making it one of the larger of the frill canaries. It is not clear if they were first bred in
North Holland North Holland (, ) is a Provinces of the Netherlands, province of the Netherlands in the northwestern part of the country. It is located on the North Sea, north of South Holland and Utrecht (province), Utrecht, and west of Friesland and Flevola ...
(as its name would otherwise suggest) and more likely is in the Belgian-French border region; its Dutch name is Noord Hollandse Frisé while in French it is known as Frisé du Nord, the latter of which is the official name recognised by the COM. The Parisian Frill (Frisé Parisien) is a canary that was first bred around the 1850s in France, although was standardised in 1920. It notably has every part of its body styled which creates a variety of different plumage looks. The breed has been highly popular for its chic wavy look. The Parisian Frill is also large, with a length between and . Since the North Dutch and Parisian, further breeds appeared later on. The Mehringer is a frill canary designed to be a miniature Parisian Frill; it does not exceed in length but retains the same coiffed styles. It originated with German breeder Karl Franke in the 1980s, who named it after his hometown of Mehring. The Italian Giant Frill (Italian: Arricciato Gigante Italiano (AGI)) is another breed that was developed from the Parisian. Its feathers point towards the canary's head, and it has a distinct round "rose" style on its back, unlike the vertical parting on the Parisian. Another Italian breed, a smaller variant of the AGI, is the Rogetto. The Padovano canary, named after
Padua Padua ( ) is a city and ''comune'' (municipality) in Veneto, northern Italy, and the capital of the province of Padua. The city lies on the banks of the river Bacchiglione, west of Venice and southeast of Vicenza, and has a population of 20 ...
, is an upright standing frill canary with a crest. This was done by crossbreeding the Parisian Frill and the English Lancashire Coppy and Crested breeds. Another breed in this category, also from Italy, is the Fiorino, a small, crested canary developed from the North Dutch and the Gloster. Fiorino Glattkopf.jpg, Fiorino Mehringer gelb lipochrom.jpg, Mehringer in yellow lipochrome Our canaries (18337427994).jpg, The 'Dutch Frill', 1911 illustration ;Posture and Frill canaries In addition to the above, numerous breeds exist that combine the frilled plumage with shape and posture features. The South Dutch Frill (also known as Southern Frill or South Hollander) is a breed with a hunchback and emaciated build but with the style of frill present in the North Dutch canary. Measuring in length, it was likely the result of a crossbreed between the Belgian Fancy and the older Roubaix. Despite its name, the breed is not believed to have originated in the Netherlands (in the 19th century, all frilled canaries carried the name "Dutch", possibly in reference to a women's hairstyle). Its French name is Frisé du Sud. Swiss breeders who obtained the Parisian Frill in the 1870s later created a breed somewhat similar to the South Duch, called the Swiss Frill. The Swiss has a sickle shape in working position, similar to a Scots Fancy. Another breed of the frill and posture type is the Gibber Italicus (also named Italian Humpback Frill), a canary with a distinctive humpback, "balding" and skinny appearance that has been described as the "
greyhound The English Greyhound, or simply the Greyhound, is a dog breed, breed of dog, a sighthound which has been bred for coursing, greyhound racing and hunting. Some are kept as show dogs or pets. Greyhounds are defined as a tall, muscular, smooth-c ...
" of canaries. This unusual breed originated in Italy by inbreeding of the older South Dutch Frill. Standing on long and straight, stiff legs, its posture forms a figure similar to the number '7', and its neck is long and stretched forward. It has shorter plumage than other breeds. The Gibber Italicus measures about to . First exhibited in 1951 by a Lombardian breeder, the breed has been relatively popular in Italy (particularly southern), although it has not gained much popularity in Germany partly due to prejudice; it has been described as an example of "cruel breeding". Despite its rather bizzare appearance, the Gibber Italicus is as lively as other breeds of canaries. Numerous more breeds have been developed in this category. The Spanish Giboso (Giboso Español) is a breed similar to the Gibber Italicus, although it is noticeably larger (minimum ), with a longer neck that is bent downwards at an 45º-60º angle. It has a bare breastbone. Another Spanish breed is the Melado Tinerfeño which dates back to about 1850, its name referring to
Tenerife Tenerife ( ; ; formerly spelled ''Teneriffe'') is the largest and most populous island of the Canary Islands, an Autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Spain. With a land area of and a population of 965,575 inhabitants as of A ...
. It was recognised as a breed by the COM in 2002. Giraldillo Seviliano is another breed from Spain, which is a Giboso with a crested breed, and officially recognised by C.O.M. since 2021. Other breeds in this category are the Benacus from Italy (officially recognised since 2023) and the Makige (also called Japanese Frill) which is not recognised.


Hybridisation

The canary crosses easily with other birds in the finch family. Some hybrids are sterile, such as the one resulting from the cross between a canary and an elegant goldfinch, called a "mule" by analogy with the hybrid of a donkey and a mare. Cross-breeds with the goldfinches were noted to be popular. Others are fertile. Indeed, a cross between a canary and a Venezuelan red siskin produces orange-red hybrids. These hybrids, through selection and crossing with canaries, will produce red canaries. The canary is regularly hybridised with the goldfinch, the bullfinch (always a male canary with a female bullfinch in this case), the European greenfinch, etc. Tarin x canari.jpg, A male hybrid of a canary and a Eurasian siskin The illustrated book of canaries and cage-birds, British and foreign BHL32529739.jpg, Canary and goldfinch hybrid illustration The illustrated book of canaries and cage-birds, British and foreign BHL32529751.jpg, Canary and linnet hybrid illustration


History and popularity

Historically, the canary had been popular due to its song, making it a staple in the residencies of aristocrats and later common citizens. They are also generally easy to care for, and their breeding abilities (like diverse colours) as well as their ability to learn sounds for singing made them popular with breeders. In the Netherlands, it is suggested that there are several million domestic canaries. In 2009, the Nederlandse Bond van Vogelliefhebbers (an association of bird keepers and enthusiasts) delivered 600,000 canary bird rings to members. A study in Lebanon found that canaries were the most traded domestic species in the country. Canaries remain popular also in Turkey. In Northern Ireland, there was a notable increase in pet bird sales, especially canaries, during the COVID-19 lockdown period. In many jurisdictions, there are laws in place to protect animal welfare that includes canaries. There has also been criticism against the breeding of certain canary breeds, such as the Gibber Italicus, that has been described as "cruel".


Domestication of the canary

Canaries were possibly first brought to Europe by Spanish sailors or Portuguese explorers in the late 14th or early 15th century, following the conquests and discoveries of the Macaronesian Islands of the
Azores The Azores ( , , ; , ), officially the Autonomous Region of the Azores (), is one of the two autonomous regions of Portugal (along with Madeira). It is an archipelago composed of nine volcanic islands in the Macaronesia region of the North Atl ...
,
Madeira Madeira ( ; ), officially the Autonomous Region of Madeira (), is an autonomous Regions of Portugal, autonomous region of Portugal. It is an archipelago situated in the North Atlantic Ocean, in the region of Macaronesia, just under north of ...
and the
Canary Islands The Canary Islands (; ) or Canaries are an archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean and the southernmost Autonomous communities of Spain, Autonomous Community of Spain. They are located in the northwest of Africa, with the closest point to the cont ...
, in the Atlantic Ocean. They were apparently impressed by the bird's song. Because of their song and liveliness, they quickly gained great popularity and became a symbol of luxury and sophistication. The earliest documented mention of canaries is believed to be in
Historia animalium ''History of Animals'' (, ''Ton peri ta zoia historion'', "Inquiries on Animals"; , "History of Animals") is one of the major texts on biology by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. It was written in sometime between the mid-fourth centur ...
in the 16th century. Canaries were first bred in captivity in the 17th century. Initially, the Spanish maintained a monopoly on the canary trade (since the Canary Islands were a possession of the
Spanish Empire The Spanish Empire, sometimes referred to as the Hispanic Monarchy (political entity), Hispanic Monarchy or the Catholic Monarchy, was a colonial empire that existed between 1492 and 1976. In conjunction with the Portuguese Empire, it ushered ...
). This was achieved simply - the birds' habitat was kept secret, only males were sold to other countries (Portugal, England, France and Italy), and the export of females was prohibited. The males were extremely popular with aristocratic ladies and wealthy citizens because of their beautiful song. Since the monasteries expected large revenues from the trade in canaries, the monks began breeding canaries. According to legend, cited by many Italian authors, the shipwreck of a Spanish vessel transporting a batch of canaries for sale around 1550, near the port of
Livorno Livorno () is a port city on the Ligurian Sea on the western coast of the Tuscany region of Italy. It is the capital of the Province of Livorno, having a population of 152,916 residents as of 2025. It is traditionally known in English as Leghorn ...
, was the catalyst for ending the Spanish monopoly. The legend states that the escaped canaries flew from the ship to the island of
Elba Elba (, ; ) is a Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean island in Tuscany, Italy, from the coastal town of Piombino on the Italian mainland, and the largest island of the Tuscan Archipelago. It is also part of the Arcipelago Toscano National Park, a ...
where they settled and interbred with local birds, eventually leading to local Italians domesticating them and opening up a flourishing trade with Tyrol, Switzerland and Germany. Giovanni Pietro Olina cited this as a fact in a work dated 1622. Eventually they were bred throughout the continent, including in Turkey during the Ottoman reign of
Bayezid II Bayezid II (; ; 3 December 1447 – 26 May 1512) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1481 to 1512. During his reign, Bayezid consolidated the Ottoman Empire, thwarted a pro-Safavid dynasty, Safavid rebellion and finally abdicated his throne ...
. Germany became the centre of canary culture throughout the 17th century. As early as 1600, the Tyroleans were breeding canaries, and
Innsbruck Innsbruck (; ) is the capital of Tyrol (federal state), Tyrol and the List of cities and towns in Austria, fifth-largest city in Austria. On the Inn (river), River Inn, at its junction with the Wipptal, Wipp Valley, which provides access to the ...
,
Nuremberg Nuremberg (, ; ; in the local East Franconian dialect: ''Nämberch'' ) is the Franconia#Towns and cities, largest city in Franconia, the List of cities in Bavaria by population, second-largest city in the States of Germany, German state of Bav ...
and
Augsburg Augsburg ( , ; ; ) is a city in the Bavaria, Bavarian part of Swabia, Germany, around west of the Bavarian capital Munich. It is a College town, university town and the regional seat of the Swabia (administrative region), Swabia with a well ...
are mentioned as trading centres. It was here where the canary's transition from its wild, grey-green plumage, to a bright yellow, occurred, sometime between 1610 and 1677. The earliest possible visual evidence of a yellow coloured canary was a drawing by
Strasbourg Strasbourg ( , ; ; ) is the Prefectures in France, prefecture and largest city of the Grand Est Regions of France, region of Geography of France, eastern France, in the historic region of Alsace. It is the prefecture of the Bas-Rhin Departmen ...
-based Johann Walter, from 1657, labelled as a canary and showing a bird with a yellow face and white wings and tail. White canaries had reportedly become commonplace in Germany by 1700. They also came up with the idea of using
nightingale The common nightingale, rufous nightingale or simply nightingale (''Luscinia megarhynchos''), is a small passerine bird which is best known for its powerful and beautiful song. It was formerly classed as a member of the thrush family Turdidae, ...
s as lead singers for the young males. A company was founded in Imst to ship the birds all over the world. The Tyrolean bird traders travelled all over Europe with back racks on which canaries were carried in small wooden cages. Around 1700, the canaries reached Germany and the Netherlands via Tyrol. These breeders went north to the
Harz Mountains The Harz (), also called the Harz Mountains, is a Mittelgebirge, highland area in northern Germany. It has the highest elevations for that region, and its rugged terrain extends across parts of Lower Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Thuringia. The nam ...
from where many canaries were exported to other countries like England, including the Harz Roller, a canary bred with a special song. Canaries became a favourite species of aviculturists for some time, bred for their plumage and distinctive song. Until the end of the 16th century, only singing canaries were bred. After that, importance was also placed on colour and finally on posture. The expansion of canary breeding was facilitated by annual exhibitions. In the Netherlands, special attention was paid to the shape of the canaries when obtaining new breeds, in England - to the colour of the canaries. Among other things, orange-red canaries were bred, for which the birds were fed food mixed with cayenne pepper during moulting. Very significant sums were paid for the best specimens. Canaries were also taught various tricks, some even learned to imitate human speech. Common canaries were fed hemp and canary seed, adding sugar, biscuits, greens, etc. Harz canaries were preferably fed a mixture of boiled egg and white bread , with the addition of crushed hemp seeds during moulting , and were also given a little canary seed and greens. Dutch breeds were fed mainly hemp, English breeds - canary seed. Charles Reiche, in his popular 1853 book ''The Bird Fancier's Companion'', wrote that "The best singers have been raised, within the last century, on the Harz Mountain ic in the
kingdom of Hanover The Kingdom of Hanover () was established in October 1814 by the Congress of Vienna, with the restoration of George III to his Hanoverian territories after the Napoleonic Wars, Napoleonic era. It succeeded the former Electorate of Hanover, and j ...
, and in
Thuringia Thuringia (; officially the Free State of Thuringia, ) is one of Germany, Germany's 16 States of Germany, states. With 2.1 million people, it is 12th-largest by population, and with 16,171 square kilometers, it is 11th-largest in area. Er ...
, in Saxony," The birds also became popular in Russia.
Peter the Great Peter I (, ; – ), better known as Peter the Great, was the Sovereign, Tsar and Grand Prince of all Russia, Tsar of all Russia from 1682 and the first Emperor of Russia, Emperor of all Russia from 1721 until his death in 1725. He reigned j ...
and Nicholas II were fans. In Ottoman Turkey they were also popular, and they bred a now-extinct breed called the Istanbul Canary. The first crested canaries were probably illustrated and bred around 1610, and the first posture canary was bred around 1700. The first frill canaries can be found in "The Illustrated London News" in 1858 and 1865.
Midway Atoll Midway Atoll (colloquialism, colloquial: Midway Islands; ; ) is a atoll in the North Pacific Ocean. Midway Atoll is an insular area of the United States and is an Insular area#Unorganized unincorporated territories, unorganized and unincorpo ...
is home to a colony of feral yellow canaries, descended from pet birds introduced in 1909 by employees of the
Commercial Pacific Cable Company Commercial Pacific Cable Company was founded in 1901, and ceased operations in October 1951. It provided the first direct telegraph route from America to the Philippines, China, and Japan. The company was established as a joint venture of three ...
. An estimated 500 canaries, which have retained their bright yellow plumage, are resident on Sand Island. Such canaries have also been reported in
Puerto Rico ; abbreviated PR), officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, is a Government of Puerto Rico, self-governing Caribbean Geography of Puerto Rico, archipelago and island organized as an Territories of the United States, unincorporated territo ...
,
Hawaii Hawaii ( ; ) is an island U.S. state, state of the United States, in the Pacific Ocean about southwest of the U.S. mainland. One of the two Non-contiguous United States, non-contiguous U.S. states (along with Alaska), it is the only sta ...
and
Bermuda Bermuda is a British Overseas Territories, British Overseas Territory in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean. The closest land outside the territory is in the American state of North Carolina, about to the west-northwest. Bermuda is an ...
.


In the United States

Steam power A steam engine is a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid. The steam engine uses the force produced by steam pressure to push a piston back and forth inside a cylinder. This pushing force can be transf ...
in the 19th century led to an increasing number of canaries being imported in bulk from Europe to the United States. Eventually bird stores were as common as barbershops in cities and towns across the U.S. Caged birds became highly popular as pets, and by far the most popular type was the canary. Perhaps the most successful bird traders in the country were brothers Charles and Henry Reiche, who were German immigrants and opened a bird shop near
Bowery The Bowery () is a street and neighbourhood, neighborhood in Lower Manhattan in New York City, New York. The street runs from Chatham Square at Park Row (Manhattan), Park Row, Worth Street, and Mott Street in the south to Cooper Square at 4th ...
in
New York City New York, often called New York City (NYC), is the most populous city in the United States, located at the southern tip of New York State on one of the world's largest natural harbors. The city comprises five boroughs, each coextensive w ...
and imported thousands of canaries from Germany. As many as 3,000 were shipped to
San Francisco San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is a commercial, Financial District, San Francisco, financial, and Culture of San Francisco, cultural center of Northern California. With a population of 827,526 residents as of ...
after the
California Gold Rush The California gold rush (1848–1855) began on January 24, 1848, when gold was found by James W. Marshall at Sutter's Mill in Coloma, California. The news of gold brought approximately 300,000 people to California from the rest of the U ...
. By 1871, the brothers were importing 48,000 canaries annually. According to Katherine C. Grier, who published ''Pets in America: A History'' in 2006, canaries were "''the'' pet" to have during the 19th century. Grier explains that before radio came along, caged birds provided ambient sound in households. People could also carry the cages between rooms "almost like a
transistor radio A transistor radio is a small portable radio receiver that uses transistor-based circuitry. Previous portable radios used vacuum tubes, which were bulky, fragile, had a limited lifetime, consumed excessive power and required large heavy batteri ...
". Canaries were known as the 'universal parlor bird'. They were also commonly given out as prizes at carnivals in the early 20th century.
Radio Radio is the technology of communicating using radio waves. Radio waves are electromagnetic waves of frequency between 3  hertz (Hz) and 300  gigahertz (GHz). They are generated by an electronic device called a transmitter connec ...
programs broadcasting live canaries singing against classical music tunes aired throughout the United States between the 1920s and 1950s. It was likely popularised by the
Mutual Broadcasting System The Mutual Broadcasting System (commonly referred to simply as Mutual; sometimes referred to as MBS, Mutual Radio or the Mutual Radio Network) was an American commercial radio network in operation from 1934 to 1999. In the Golden Age of Radio, ...
's show '' American Radio Warblers'', featuring tunes by organist Preston Sellers and ten caged canaries in the studio. The 1946 book ''The First Quarter-Century of American Broadcasting'' wrote about radio programs with singing canaries: "appearing over too many stations to be listed here, affording hours of delightful entertainment to millions, particularly shut-ins. Due to
World War I World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
halting the import of canaries from Europe (especially Germany and Great Britain), American enthusiasts increasingly sought to breed the birds locally, and this hobby led to the creation of clubs as those that existed in Europe. Canary imports to America peaked just before the
Great Depression The Great Depression was a severe global economic downturn from 1929 to 1939. The period was characterized by high rates of unemployment and poverty, drastic reductions in industrial production and international trade, and widespread bank and ...
, in 1929. Germany and Britain going to war once again led to another decline in importing, and it never recovered to pre-Depression levels after the end of
World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
. By the 1970s, partly due to changing public tastes, canaries had declined in popularity and there were now more
parrots Parrots (Psittaciformes), also known as psittacines (), are birds with a strong curved beak, upright stance, and clawed feet. They are classified in four families that contain roughly 410 species in 101 genus (biology), genera, found mostly in ...
and other exotic birds being imported. In the bigger picture, by the end of the 20th century pet birds had declined significantly and now amount to only a fraction of American households who instead own cats or dogs as pets. Five sitting U.S. presidents have kept a canary as a pet in office. The first of these was
John Tyler John Tyler (March 29, 1790 – January 18, 1862) was the tenth president of the United States, serving from 1841 to 1845, after briefly holding office as the tenth vice president of the United States, vice president in 1841. He was elected ...
(1841–45) and the most recent was
John F. Kennedy John Fitzgerald Kennedy (May 29, 1917 – November 22, 1963), also known as JFK, was the 35th president of the United States, serving from 1961 until his assassination in 1963. He was the first Roman Catholic and youngest person elected p ...
(1961–63). The yellow canary of the Kennedys belonged to the president's daughter, Caroline, and was named Robin. Robin died in 1962 and was buried in the backyard of the
White House The White House is the official residence and workplace of the president of the United States. Located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue Northwest (Washington, D.C.), NW in Washington, D.C., it has served as the residence of every U.S. president ...
. No sitting president since Kennedy's successor,
Lyndon B. Johnson Lyndon Baines Johnson (; August 27, 1908January 22, 1973), also known as LBJ, was the 36th president of the United States, serving from 1963 to 1969. He became president after the assassination of John F. Kennedy, under whom he had served a ...
(who kept lovebirds) has kept birds in the White House.


Competitions

Canaries are judged in competitions following the annual
molt In biology, moulting (British English), or molting (American English), also known as sloughing, shedding, or in many invertebrates, ecdysis, is a process by which an animal casts off parts of its body to serve some beneficial purpose, either at ...
in the summer. This means that in the Northern Hemisphere the show season generally begins in October or November and runs through December or January. Birds can only be shown by the persons who raised them. A show bird must have a unique band on its leg indicating the year of birth, the band number, and the club to which the breeder belongs. There are many canary shows all over the world. The world show (C.O.M. - Confederation Ornithologique Mondiale) is held in Europe each year and attracts thousands of breeders. As many as 20,000 birds are brought together for this competition.


Human use


Miner's canary

Mice were used as sentinel species for use in detecting carbon monoxide in British
coal mining Coal mining is the process of resource extraction, extracting coal from the ground or from a mine. Coal is valued for its Energy value of coal, energy content and since the 1880s has been widely used to Electricity generation, generate electr ...
from around 1896, after the idea had been suggested in 1895 by
John Scott Haldane John Scott Haldane (; 2 May 1860 – 14/15 March 1936) was a Scottish physician physiologist and philosopher famous for intrepid self-experimentation which led to many important discoveries about the human body and the nature of gases. He al ...
. Toxic
gas Gas is a state of matter that has neither a fixed volume nor a fixed shape and is a compressible fluid. A ''pure gas'' is made up of individual atoms (e.g. a noble gas like neon) or molecules of either a single type of atom ( elements such as ...
es such as
carbon monoxide Carbon monoxide (chemical formula CO) is a poisonous, flammable gas that is colorless, odorless, tasteless, and slightly less dense than air. Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom connected by a triple bond. It is the si ...
,
asphyxiant gas An asphyxiant gas, also known as a simple asphyxiant, is a nontoxic or minimally toxic gas which reduces or displaces the normal oxygen concentration in breathing air. Breathing of oxygen-depleted air can lead to death by asphyxiation (suffocati ...
es such as
carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound with the chemical formula . It is made up of molecules that each have one carbon atom covalent bond, covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms. It is found in a gas state at room temperature and at norma ...
and explosive gases like
methane Methane ( , ) is a chemical compound with the chemical formula (one carbon atom bonded to four hydrogen atoms). It is a group-14 hydride, the simplest alkane, and the main constituent of natural gas. The abundance of methane on Earth makes ...
in the mine would affect small warm-blooded animals before affecting the miners, since their respiratory exchange is more rapid than in humans. A mouse will be affected by carbon monoxide within a few minutes, while a human will have an interval of 20 times as long. Later, canaries were found to be more sensitive and a more effective indicator as they showed more visible signs of distress. Their use in mining is documented from around 1900. The birds were sometimes kept in carriers which had small oxygen bottles attached to revive them. The phrase " canary in a coal mine" is frequently used to refer to a person or thing which serves as an early warning of a coming crisis. By analogy, the term "climate canary" is used to refer to a species (called an
indicator species A bioindicator is any species (an indicator species) or group of species whose function, population, or status can reveal the qualitative status of the environment. The most common indicator species are animals. For example, copepods and other sma ...
) that is affected by an environmental danger prior to other species, thus serving as an early warning system for the other species with regard to the danger. The use of miners' canaries in
British British may refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies. * British national identity, the characteristics of British people and culture ...
mines was phased out in 1986 with the introduction of an electronic nose with a digital metre. However the use of canaries did continue until it was fully outlawed in February 1996. Although the phasing out was seen as a more humane way of treating the birds, it has been noted that many miners cared for their canary companions and that it lifted the spirits of the miners. Some miners carried them in a special resuscitation cage to revive a canary in case it faints after carbon monoxide poisoning. In addition to coal mines, experiments showed that canaries could detect other specific poisonous gases, and they were therefore used in the
First World War World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
. Canaries were also used by Japanese troops following the Tokyo gas attacks in 1995, and by Iraqi civilians in
2003 2003 was designated by the United Nations as the International Year of Fresh water, Freshwater. In 2003, a Multi-National Force – Iraq, United States-led coalition 2003 invasion of Iraq, invaded Iraq, starting the Iraq War. Demographic ...
for potential chemical agent detection.


Use in research

Canaries have been extensively used in research to study
neurogenesis Neurogenesis is the process by which nervous system cells, the neurons, are produced by neural stem cells (NSCs). This occurs in all species of animals except the porifera (sponges) and placozoans. Types of NSCs include neuroepithelial cells ( ...
, or the birth of new neurons in the adult brain, and also for basic research in order to understand how songbirds encode and produce song. Thus, canaries have served as model species for discovering how the vertebrate brain learns, consolidates memories, and recalls coordinated motor movements. Fernando Nottebohm, a professor at the
Rockefeller University The Rockefeller University is a Private university, private Medical research, biomedical Research university, research and graduate-only university in New York City, New York. It focuses primarily on the biological and medical sciences and pro ...
in
New York City New York, often called New York City (NYC), is the most populous city in the United States, located at the southern tip of New York State on one of the world's largest natural harbors. The city comprises five boroughs, each coextensive w ...
, detailed the avian brain structures and pathways that are involved in the production of bird song. Canaries are sometimes used to avoid hazardous human testing. Wasicky et al. 1949 used them in early testing of
insect repellent An insect repellent (also commonly called "bug spray" or "bug deterrent") is a substance applied to the skin, clothing, or other surfaces to discourage insects (and arthropods in general) from landing or climbing on that surface. Insect repellent ...
s. Human testing could only provide limited
sample size Sample size determination or estimation is the act of choosing the number of observations or replicates to include in a statistical sample. The sample size is an important feature of any empirical study in which the goal is to make inferences abo ...
and the inherent
variance In probability theory and statistics, variance is the expected value of the squared deviation from the mean of a random variable. The standard deviation (SD) is obtained as the square root of the variance. Variance is a measure of dispersion ...
of the host ⇔ repellent ⇔ insect interaction is too high. Canaries, among other test animals, provided larger sample sizes cheaply.


In popular culture

The domestic canary has been the subject of literary texts, folkloric elements, and books in various European civilisations, the
Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...
, and America.
Georg Philipp Telemann Georg Philipp Telemann (; – 25 June 1767) was a German Baroque composer and multi-instrumentalist. He is one of the most prolific composers in history, at least in terms of surviving works. Telemann was considered by his contemporaries to b ...
's 1737 composition "Canary Cantata" is a tragicomic funeral song to his beloved pet canary who died. Carl Zeller's operetta "The Bird Seller" tells of the era of Tyrolean canary breeding in the 18th century. The American poet
Walt Whitman Walter Whitman Jr. (; May 31, 1819 – March 26, 1892) was an American poet, essayist, and journalist; he also wrote two novels. He is considered one of the most influential poets in American literature and world literature. Whitman incor ...
was an enthusiast of canaries. In 1891, shortly before his death, he wrote a short poem, "My Canary Bird". Also throughout the 19th century, canary poems had emerged in Britain. Along with odes like "A lovely green canary" and "golden-feathered fairies", the poems represented, according to one author, the domesticity of the canary and its status as an otherwise mundane being in the household. The stage play '' The Cat and the Canary'' (1922), as well as ''A Mute Canary'' (1919), symbolically feature the canary name in the titles, as does the 1943 British drama '' Yellow Canary''. In modern music, it features in the 1931 song "My Canary Has Circles Under His Eyes" written by
Ted Koehler Ted L. Koehler (July 14, 1894 – January 17, 1973) was an American lyricist. He was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1972. Life and career Koehler was born in 1894 in Washington, D.C. He started out as a photo-engraver, but ...
and Edward Pola. Canaries have been depicted in
cartoon A cartoon is a type of visual art that is typically drawn, frequently Animation, animated, in an realism (arts), unrealistic or semi-realistic style. The specific meaning has evolved, but the modern usage usually refers to either: an image or s ...
s from the mid-20th century as being harassed by domestic
cat The cat (''Felis catus''), also referred to as the domestic cat or house cat, is a small domesticated carnivorous mammal. It is the only domesticated species of the family Felidae. Advances in archaeology and genetics have shown that the ...
s; the most famous cartoon canary is
Warner Bros. Warner Bros. Entertainment Inc. (WBEI), commonly known as Warner Bros. (WB), is an American filmed entertainment studio headquartered at the Warner Bros. Studios complex in Burbank, California and the main namesake subsidiary of Warner Bro ...
' "
Tweety Tweety is an animated character, a yellow canary bird in the Warner Bros. ''Looney Tunes'' and '' Merrie Melodies'' series of animated cartoons. His characteristics are based on Red Skelton's famous "Junior the Mean Widdle Kid". He appeared in ...
". Thomas E. Gaddis's ''Birdman of Alcatraz'', which received a
film adaptation A film adaptation transfers the details or story of an existing source text, such as a novel, into a feature film. This transfer can involve adapting most details of the source text closely, including characters or plot points, or the original sou ...
in 1962, is about the prisoner
Robert Stroud Robert Franklin Stroud (January 28, 1890 – November 21, 1963), known as the "Birdman of Alcatraz", was a convicted murderer, American federal prisoner, and author who has been cited as one of the most notorious criminals in the United St ...
and his keeping of canaries. In organized crime, the canary symbolises an
informant An informant (also called an informer or, as a slang term, a "snitch", "rat", "canary", "stool pigeon", "stoolie", "tout" or "grass", among other terms) is a person who provides privileged information, or (usually damaging) information inten ...
who "sings" to the police. In sport,
Norwich City Norwich City Football Club is a professional football club based in Norwich, Norfolk, England. The club competes in the Championship, the second tier of English football. The club was founded in 1902. Since 1935, Norwich have played their h ...
, an English
football Football is a family of team sports that involve, to varying degrees, kick (football), kicking a football (ball), ball to score a goal (sports), goal. Unqualified, football (word), the word ''football'' generally means the form of football t ...
team, is nicknamed "the Canaries" due to the city once being a famous centre for breeding and export of the birds. The club adopted the colours of yellow and green in homage. Jacob Mackley, of Norwich, won many prizes with birds of the local variety and shipped about 10,000 from Norwich to New York every year. A number of other sports teams worldwide use variations of the name "Canaries", such as Atlético Morelia (Mexico),
Botev Plovdiv Profesionalen Futbolen Klub Botev AD, commonly referred to as Botev Plovdiv (, ), or simply Botev (within its associated city), is a Bulgarian professional Association football, football club based in Plovdiv. It competes in the First Professiona ...
(Bulgaria),
Frosinone Frosinone (; local dialect: ) is a ''comune'' (municipality) in the Italian region of Lazio, administrative seat of the province of Frosinone. It is about southeast of Rome, close to the Rome-Naples A1 Motorway. The city is the main city of th ...
(Italy),
Koper Koper (; ) is the List of cities and towns in Slovenia, fifth-largest city in Slovenia. Located in the Slovenian Istria, Istrian region in the southwestern part of the country, Koper is the main urban center of the Slovene coast. Port of Koper i ...
(Slovenia), FC Novi Sad (Serbia), Fenerbahçe (Turkey), Lillestrøm SK (Norway),
Kedah FA Kedah Darul Aman Football Club () is a professional football club based in Alor Setar, Kedah. The team competes in the Malaysia A1 Semi-Pro League, the second tier of Malaysian football. They are the first team in the history of Malaysian footb ...
(Malaysia), IAPE (Maranhão, Brazil), the
Brazil national football team The Brazil national football team (), nicknamed ''Seleção Canarinho'' ("Canary Squad", after their bright yellow jersey), represents Brazil in men's international Association football, football and is administered by the Brazilian Football Co ...
and the
Brazil women's national football team The Brazil women's national football team ( Portuguese: ''Seleção Brasileira Feminina de futebol'') represents Brazil in international women's football and is run by the Brazilian Football Confederation (CBF). It has participated in all nine ...
.


See also

*
Atlantic canary The Atlantic canary (''Serinus canaria''), known worldwide simply as the wild canary and also called the island canary, common canary, or canary, is a small passerine bird belonging to the genus '' Serinus'' in the true finch family, Fringillid ...
(wild canary) *
Birdcage A birdcage (or bird cage) is a cage (enclosure), cage designed to house birds as pets. Antique (or antique-style) birdcages are often popular as collectors' items or as household decor but most are not suitable for housing live birds, being to ...
*
Warrant canary A warrant canary is a method by which a communications service provider aims to implicitly inform its users that the provider has been served with a government subpoena despite legal prohibitions on revealing the existence of the subpoena. The wa ...
* Sentinel species


References


Further reading

* McDonald, Robirda, ''Brats in Feathers, Keeping Canaries'' * Miley-Russell, Marie, ''The Practical Canary Handbook, A Guide to Breeding and Keeping Canaries''. . Especially useful to American Singer canary owners. * Linda Hogan, ''Canary Tales'' * GB Walker, ''Colour, Type, and Song Canaries'' * David Alderton, ''Birds Care'', ''You and your pet bird'' * Author unknown, ''The Canary Handbook'', ''Canaries'', Barrons * Tim Hawcroft, ''Health Care for Birds'' * James Blake, ''Fife Canaries''
George Jackson French, ''All About Your Canary'' (1920)


External links


The Canary FAQ

The Rockefeller University
{{Taxonbar, from=Q253941 Birds described in 1758 Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus Canary Serinus Warning systems