Camillo Berneri
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Camillo Berneri (; 1897–1937) was an Italian anarchist and
anti-fascist Anti-fascism is a political movement in opposition to fascist ideologies, groups and individuals. Beginning in European countries in the 1920s, it was at its most significant shortly before and during World War II, where the Axis powers were op ...
activist Activism consists of efforts to promote, impede, direct or intervene in social, political, economic or environmental reform with the desire to make changes in society toward a perceived common good. Forms of activism range from mandate build ...
. Born in Lodi, Berneri joined the
Italian Socialist Party The Italian Socialist Party (, PSI) was a Social democracy, social democratic and Democratic socialism, democratic socialist political party in Italy, whose history stretched for longer than a century, making it one of the longest-living parti ...
at an early age, but quickly became dissilusioned with its lack of militancy and failure to oppose Italian imperialism. He then became an anarchist, joining the
Italian Syndicalist Union The Italian Syndicalist Union (; USI) is an Italian anarcho-syndicalist trade union. Established in 1912 by a confederation of " houses of labour", the USI led a series of general strikes throughout its early years, culminating with the Red W ...
(USI), and briefly worked as a schoolteacher before being forced to flee into exile after the rise of the Fascist dictatorship in Italy. Among exiled Italian anarchists, he became one of the movement's leading figures, which attracted the attention of fascist spies and the French police. From 1928 to 1931, he was arrested, imprisoned and expelled from multiple different countries in western Europe, none of which had a legal agreement about what to do with him. After receiving a pardon, he rejoined the Italian anti-fascist movement, building an alliance between the anarchists and the liberal socialists of
Giustizia e Libertà Giustizia e Libertà (; ) was an Italian anti-fascist resistance movement, active from 1929 to 1945.James D. Wilkinson (1981). ''The Intellectual Resistance Movement in Europe''. Harvard University Press. p. 224. The movement was cofounded by ...
(GL). He also came into conflict with the
Italian Communist Party The Italian Communist Party (, PCI) was a communist and democratic socialist political party in Italy. It was established in Livorno as the Communist Party of Italy (, PCd'I) on 21 January 1921, when it seceded from the Italian Socialist Part ...
(PCI), which he came to regard as an expression of " left-wing fascism". After the Italian invasion of Ethiopia, he held a conference of Italian anarchists in which they planned to lead an armed return to Italy in the event of its defeat in the war. He then went to fight in the
Spanish Civil War The Spanish Civil War () was a military conflict fought from 1936 to 1939 between the Republican faction (Spanish Civil War), Republicans and the Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War), Nationalists. Republicans were loyal to the Left-wing p ...
, before finding a career as an anti-fascist journalist in
Barcelona Barcelona ( ; ; ) is a city on the northeastern coast of Spain. It is the capital and largest city of the autonomous community of Catalonia, as well as the second-most populous municipality of Spain. With a population of 1.6 million within c ...
. There he exposed evidence of Italian plans to annex the
Balearic Islands The Balearic Islands are an archipelago in the western Mediterranean Sea, near the eastern coast of the Iberian Peninsula. The archipelago forms a Provinces of Spain, province and Autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Spain, ...
, called for the Spanish Republic to recognise Moroccan independence and denounced moves by the Republican government which he considered counterrevolutionary. During the May Days of 1937, Berneri was arrested in his home and executed near the Palace of the Generalitat of Catalonia. The main theories about his death hold that his killers were either Stalinists, Catalan nationalists, members of a Francoist fifth column, the OVRA, or Italian anarchists in the employ of Interior Minister Ángel Galarza, all of which had the motive and means to carry out the assassination.


Biography


Early life and education

Camillo Berneri was born in the Lombard city of Lodi, on 28 May 1897. He was raised by his mother, Adalgisa Fochi, in Reggio. There he joined the youth wing of the
Italian Socialist Party The Italian Socialist Party (, PSI) was a Social democracy, social democratic and Democratic socialism, democratic socialist political party in Italy, whose history stretched for longer than a century, making it one of the longest-living parti ...
, within which he came under the influence of the socialist humanism espoused by . He later joined the city's anarchist movement and was educated on anarchist philosophy by Torquato Gobbi. In 1915, Berneri resigned from the Socialist Party in an open letter, in which he accused the party of falling into a "destructive egoism" and called for a renewed sense of militancy. Considering anti-colonialism to be an integral aspect of his philosophy, he reproached the moderate socialists for not having adequately resisted the colonisation of Libya or the outbreak of
World War I World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
. Following the Italian entry into the war, in 1917, Berneri was himself conscripted into the
Royal Italian Army The Royal Italian Army () (RE) was the land force of the Kingdom of Italy, established with the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy. During the 19th century Italy started to unify into one country, and in 1861 Manfredo Fanti signed a decree c ...
. He returned to his studies after the war, enrolling at the
University of Florence The University of Florence ( Italian: ''Università degli Studi di Firenze'') (in acronym UNIFI) is an Italian public research university located in Florence, Italy. It comprises 12 schools and has around 50,000 students enrolled. History The f ...
, where he studied history under Gaetano Salvemini and met other members of the nascent Italian anti-fascist movement, including Carlo and
Nello Rosselli Sabatino Enrico 'Nello' Rosselli (29 November 1900 – 9 June 1937) was an Italian Socialist leader and historian. Biography Rosselli was born on 29 June 1900, in Rome, to a prominent Jewish family. His parents were Giuseppe Emanuele "Joe" Rossel ...
. Following the Biennio Rosso, Berneri joined both the Italian Anarchist Union (UAI), an anarchist
political organisation A political organization is any organization that involves itself in the political process, including political parties, non-governmental organizations, and special interest advocacy groups. Political organizations are those engaged in politic ...
, and the
Italian Syndicalist Union The Italian Syndicalist Union (; USI) is an Italian anarcho-syndicalist trade union. Established in 1912 by a confederation of " houses of labour", the USI led a series of general strikes throughout its early years, culminating with the Red W ...
(USI), a
trade union federation Organizers within trade unions have sought to increase the bargaining power of workers in regards to collective bargaining by acting in collaboration with other trade unions. Multi-union organizing can take place on an informal basis, or on a ...
. He acted as a representative for the latter at the founding of the International Workers' Association (IWA) in 1922. He also closely followed anti-colonial movements fighting to overthrow the
British Empire The British Empire comprised the dominions, Crown colony, colonies, protectorates, League of Nations mandate, mandates, and other Dependent territory, territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It bega ...
, from
Ireland Ireland (, ; ; Ulster Scots dialect, Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean, in Northwestern Europe. Geopolitically, the island is divided between the Republic of Ireland (officially Names of the Irish state, named Irelan ...
to
India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
. He went on to teach the humanities at a
secondary school A secondary school, high school, or senior school, is an institution that provides secondary education. Some secondary schools provide both ''lower secondary education'' (ages 11 to 14) and ''upper secondary education'' (ages 14 to 18), i.e., b ...
, but by 1926, the establishment of a Fascist dictatorship in Italy compelled him to flee into exile. He was followed soon after by his wife Giovanna, and their two daughters Maria Louisa and Giliana.


Exile and expulsion

He initially went to
France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...
, where exiled Italian anarchists were facing the constant threat of fascist spies infiltrating their ranks. Berneri dedicated himself to
counterintelligence Counterintelligence (counter-intelligence) or counterespionage (counter-espionage) is any activity aimed at protecting an agency's Intelligence agency, intelligence program from an opposition's intelligence service. It includes gathering informati ...
operations to expose the fascist spies, which elevated him to a leading position within the Italian anarchist movement (succeeding
Errico Malatesta Errico Malatesta (4 December 1853 – 22 July 1932) was an Italian anarchist propagandist, theorist and revolutionary socialist. He edited several radical newspapers and spent much of his life exiled and imprisoned, having been jailed and expel ...
and Luigi Fabbri). This made him into a key target for
agent provocateur An is a person who actively entices another person to commit a crime that would not otherwise have been committed and then reports the person to the authorities. They may target individuals or groups. In jurisdictions in which conspiracy is a ...
s, who circulated weapons among the anti-fascists to attract the attention of
French police Law enforcement in France is centralized at the national level. Recently, legislation has allowed local governments to hire their own police officers which are called the ''Municipal Police (France), police municipale''. There are two nation ...
. He was arrested, detained and violently interrogated. During his questioning, he commented on an image of
Voltaire François-Marie Arouet (; 21 November 169430 May 1778), known by his ''Pen name, nom de plume'' Voltaire (, ; ), was a French Age of Enlightenment, Enlightenment writer, philosopher (''philosophe''), satirist, and historian. Famous for his wit ...
on the pipe carried by one of the police officers, which briefly humanised him to the officer and opened up a dialogue between them. What followed was a series of expulsions, arrests and counter-expulsions, which led Berneri to describe himself as "the most expelled anarchist in Europe". In December 1928, French authorities arrested Berneri and expelled him to
Belgium Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a country in Northwestern Europe. Situated in a coastal lowland region known as the Low Countries, it is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeas ...
, where he was swiftly arrested and imprisoned for possessing a fake passport and a gun. From his prison cell, he wrote to his daughter Giliana, attempting to reassure her of how much he love his family, despite the pain he was causing them through his exile. In May 1930, he was expelled to the
Netherlands , Terminology of the Low Countries, informally Holland, is a country in Northwestern Europe, with Caribbean Netherlands, overseas territories in the Caribbean. It is the largest of the four constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Nether ...
, but the Dutch authorities forced him back into Belgium, where he was arrested again. In June 1930, he was expelled into
Luxembourg Luxembourg, officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, is a landlocked country in Western Europe. It is bordered by Belgium to the west and north, Germany to the east, and France on the south. Its capital and most populous city, Luxembour ...
, where
local police Municipal police, city police, or local police are Law enforcement agency, law enforcement agencies that are under the control of local government. This includes the Municipality, municipal government, where it is the smallest Administ ...
likewise arrested him and prepared his expulsion to France. He drew attention to the fact that he had already been expelled from France, and was prohibited from entering several other countries, so the police attempted to make his expulsion discrete. When he was pushed over the border, he began screaming to call the attention of nearby people to his expulsion, as he was arrested by French police. In August 1930, the French authorities expelled him into
Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...
. During his brief stay in
Berlin Berlin ( ; ) is the Capital of Germany, capital and largest city of Germany, by both area and List of cities in Germany by population, population. With 3.7 million inhabitants, it has the List of cities in the European Union by population withi ...
, he was shocked by the
anti-Romani sentiment Anti-Romani sentiment (also called antigypsyism, anti-Romanyism, antiziganism, ziganophobia, or Romaphobia) is an ideology which consists of hostility, prejudice, discrimination, racism, and xenophobia which is specifically directed at Romani ...
expressed by his neighbours towards the local Romani community, leading him to write about the use of
xenophobia Xenophobia (from (), 'strange, foreign, or alien', and (), 'fear') is the fear or dislike of anything that is perceived as being foreign or strange. It is an expression that is based on the perception that a conflict exists between an in-gr ...
as a way to enforce societal
conformity Conformity or conformism is the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to social group, group norms, politics or being like-minded. Social norm, Norms are implicit, specific rules, guidance shared by a group of individuals, that guide t ...
. In October 1930, he was expelled from Germany back into France, where he was subsequently arrested and imprisoned. The Human Rights League took up his case, organising a series of
political demonstration A political demonstration is an action by a mass group or collection of groups of people in favor of a political or other cause or people partaking in a protest against a cause of concern; it often consists of walking in a mass march formati ...
s calling for his release. Berneri himself emphasised the illegality of his multiple expulsions and counter-expulsions, as the countries involved lacked any formal agreement or even permission from the countries they were expelling him into. In May 1931, he was finally granted a
pardon A pardon is a government decision to allow a person to be relieved of some or all of the legal consequences resulting from a criminal conviction. A pardon may be granted before or after conviction for the crime, depending on the laws of the j ...
by President
Gaston Doumergue Pierre Paul Henri Gaston Doumergue (; 1 August 1863 in Aigues-Vives, Gard18 June 1937 in Aigues-Vives) was a French politician who served as President of France from 1924 to 1931. Tasked with important ministerial portfolios, he was first appo ...
and released from prison.


Return to anti-fascist activism

Berneri then settled in
Paris Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, largest city of France. With an estimated population of 2,048,472 residents in January 2025 in an area of more than , Paris is the List of ci ...
, where he worked as a
bricklayer A bricklayer, which is related to but different from a mason, is a craftsperson and tradesperson who lays bricks to construct brickwork. The terms also refer to personnel who use blocks to construct blockwork walls and other forms of maso ...
. For a time, he remained isolated and alone, despite the cosmopolitan environment of the French capital. The experience of constant arrests and expulsions had exhausted Berneri, and he fell into a depression. Despite the hardships, he continued to stimulate himself intellectually and develop his political philosophy, writing to Luigi Fabbri that he hoped to prepare an anarchist programme by 1933. He soon resumed his involvement with the exiled Italian anti-fascist movement, encouraging cooperation between anarchists and the more moderate liberal socialists of
Giustizia e Libertà Giustizia e Libertà (; ) was an Italian anti-fascist resistance movement, active from 1929 to 1945.James D. Wilkinson (1981). ''The Intellectual Resistance Movement in Europe''. Harvard University Press. p. 224. The movement was cofounded by ...
(GL). He also struggled against the political sectarianism of the
Italian Communist Party The Italian Communist Party (, PCI) was a communist and democratic socialist political party in Italy. It was established in Livorno as the Communist Party of Italy (, PCd'I) on 21 January 1921, when it seceded from the Italian Socialist Part ...
(PCI), which at the time refused to cooperate with anti-fascist alliances and even attempted to recruit fascists into their ranks, leading Berneri to conclude that they were facing conflict with " left-wing fascism" (represented by
Stalinism Stalinism (, ) is the Totalitarianism, totalitarian means of governing and Marxism–Leninism, Marxist–Leninist policies implemented in the Soviet Union (USSR) from History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953), 1927 to 1953 by dictator Jose ...
) as well as right-wing fascism. Berneri also reached out to Italian anarchists in the
Americas The Americas, sometimes collectively called America, are a landmass comprising the totality of North America and South America.''Webster's New World College Dictionary'', 2010 by Wiley Publishing, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio. When viewed as a sing ...
, building a network of anti-fascist exiles from Raffaele Schiavina's '' L'Adunata dei refrattari'' in the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
to Luce Fabbri's ''Studi Sociali'' in
Uruguay Uruguay, officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay, is a country in South America. It shares borders with Argentina to its west and southwest and Brazil to its north and northeast, while bordering the Río de la Plata to the south and the A ...
. Berneri protested against the Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1935, criticising the
League of Nations The League of Nations (LN or LoN; , SdN) was the first worldwide intergovernmental organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. It was founded on 10 January 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920), Paris Peace ...
for failing to stop it and even going so far as to hold Britain and France directly complicit in the invasion. In response to the invasion, the Rosselli brothers proposed a revolutionary alliance with the anarchists to overthrow the fascist dictatorship in the event of a military defeat in Ethiopia. That year, Berneri organised an Italian anarchist conference in Sartrouville, the first of its kind in over a decade, where they discussed how to organise a mass armed return to their home country in the event of a governmental crisis. The conference accepted alliances with anti-fascist mass organisations such as Giustizia e Libertà, acknowledging that they could not fight fascism by themselves, while opposing any formal affiliation with political parties. It concluded by signing a document, drafted by Berneri, which called for the destruction of the fascist regime and for anarchists to impede the establishment of any new government in its place.


Spanish Civil War

With the outbreak of the
Spanish Civil War The Spanish Civil War () was a military conflict fought from 1936 to 1939 between the Republican faction (Spanish Civil War), Republicans and the Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War), Nationalists. Republicans were loyal to the Left-wing p ...
in 1936, Berneri and other Italian anti-fascists immediately travelled to revolutionary Catalonia to take part in the fighting. He arrived on 29 July, and on 7 August, he and Carlo Rosselli began organising their own militia column of Italian volunteers. The column was established on 17 August and then set off for the ; it was integrated into the Ascaso Column. Berneri himself fought at the Battle of Monte Pelado on 28 August, and the Battle of Talavera on 3 September. Soon after, he returned to
Barcelona Barcelona ( ; ; ) is a city on the northeastern coast of Spain. It is the capital and largest city of the autonomous community of Catalonia, as well as the second-most populous municipality of Spain. With a population of 1.6 million within c ...
, as his fellow militiamen believed that his skills as a
journalist A journalist is a person who gathers information in the form of text, audio or pictures, processes it into a newsworthy form and disseminates it to the public. This is called journalism. Roles Journalists can work in broadcast, print, advertis ...
would more useful to the anti-fascist cause. There he occupied himself with publishing the Italian magazine ''Guerra di Classe'' () and speaking in Italian anarchist radio broadcasts. He began going through the documents of the Italian consulate, which had been vacated by the fascists and occupied by anti-fascists at the beginning of the war. There he found evidence that Mussolini was planning to further expand the Italian Empire by occupying and annexing the
Balearic Islands The Balearic Islands are an archipelago in the western Mediterranean Sea, near the eastern coast of the Iberian Peninsula. The archipelago forms a Provinces of Spain, province and Autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Spain, ...
, which would be used as a strategic counterweight against British and French influence in the Mediterannean. Comparing Mussolini's intervention in Spain to his earlier conquest of Ethiopia, Berneri characterised the Italian intervention in support of the Spanish nationalists as an
opportunistic 300px, ''Opportunity Seized, Opportunity Missed'', engraving by Theodoor Galle, 1605 Opportunism is the practice of taking advantage of circumstances — with little regard for principles or with what the consequences are for others. Opport ...
cover for territorial expansion. He even discovered the Italian government's intentions to annex the islands went as far back as the 1920s, when they began advertising the Balearics as a holiday destination for Italian tourists and prime location for business investments. Berneri came to believe that Italian imperialism in the Mediterannean would continue on from Spain, until Italy had annexed
Algeria Algeria, officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria, is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It is bordered to Algeria–Tunisia border, the northeast by Tunisia; to Algeria–Libya border, the east by Libya; to Alger ...
,
Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...
,
Morocco Morocco, officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It has coastlines on the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria to Algeria–Morocc ...
and
Tunisia Tunisia, officially the Republic of Tunisia, is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It is bordered by Algeria to the west and southwest, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Tunisia also shares m ...
. Berneri's subsequent article, "Mussolini and the Conquest of the Balearic Islands", became one of his most important writings of the war. Italian historian later found evidence in the archives of the that Berneri was brought under close surveillance by the Italian fascist secret police, the OVRA. From October 1936, Berneri's articles in ''Guerra di Classe'' became increasingly more combative, as he came to view his publication as a weapon. He strongly criticised the
Non-Intervention Committee During the Spanish Civil War, most European countries followed a policy of non-intervention to avoid potential escalation or expansion of the war to other states. This policy led to the signing of the Non-Intervention Agreement in August 1936 an ...
, which he viewed as having allowed Fascist and Nazi intervention to continue while also blocking weapons shipments to the Spanish Republic. Under the circumstances, he believed it necessary to the war effort for Spanish anarchists to ally themselves with Moroccan independence activists and compel the Republican government to withdraw its claims in Morocco. Despite the efforts by Berneri and the anarchist diplomat , the Republican government refused to accept Moroccan independence and even began deploying racist propaganda against the Moroccans commanded by
Francisco Franco Francisco Franco Bahamonde (born Francisco Paulino Hermenegildo Teódulo Franco Bahamonde; 4 December 1892 – 20 November 1975) was a Spanish general and dictator who led the Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War), Nationalist forces i ...
.Berneri's son-in-law, the British anarchist
Vernon Richards Vernon Richards (born Vero Benvenuto Costantino Recchioni, 19 July 1915 – 10 December 2001) was an Anglo-Italian anarchist, editor, author, engineer, photographer and the companion of Marie-Louise Berneri. Richards' founding of the paper ' ...
, later argued that one of the biggest mistakes of the Republican faction had been its failure to support Moroccan independence. Over time, Berneri became increasingly critical of the leadership of the National Confederation of Labour (CNT), particularly after it made the decision to join the Republican government in November 1936. The decision deeply concerned Berneri, as he believed it could compromise the
social revolution Social revolutions are sudden changes in the structure and nature of society. These revolutions are usually recognized as having transformed society, economy, culture, philosophy, and technology along with but more than just the political system ...
by allying with the various Republican parties which were opposed to it. He also criticised the establishment of the Economic Council of Catalonia, considering it to be an " nufficient compensation" for the anarchists joining the government and comparing it to the National Economic Council in France. Berneri believed that the social revolution and the war against fascism were inseparable, and that to win one, it was necessary to win the other as well. In terms of military strategy, he argued for the Republic to shift from static
trench warfare Trench warfare is a type of land warfare using occupied lines largely comprising Trench#Military engineering, military trenches, in which combatants are well-protected from the enemy's small arms fire and are substantially sheltered from a ...
to tightly planned
maneuver warfare Maneuver warfare, or manoeuvre warfare, is a military strategy which emphasizes movement, initiative and surprise to achieve a position of advantage. Maneuver seeks to inflict losses indirectly by envelopment, encirclement and disruption, while ...
. He also called for the
mobilisation Mobilization (alternatively spelled as mobilisation) is the act of assembling and readying military troops and supplies for war. The word ''mobilization'' was first used in a military context in the 1850s to describe the preparation of the ...
of Spanish workers and warned against any proposals by the government for the militarisation of the anarchist militias. Over the subsequent months, Berneri became louder in his denunciations of the rising influence of the
Communist Party of Spain The Communist Party of Spain (; PCE) is a communist party that, since 1986, has been part of the United Left coalition, which is currently part of Sumar. Two of its politicians are Spanish government ministers: Yolanda Díaz (Minister of L ...
(PCE), which had attracted many members of the
middle class The middle class refers to a class of people in the middle of a social hierarchy, often defined by occupation, income, education, or social status. The term has historically been associated with modernity, capitalism and political debate. C ...
by promising to defend
private property Private property is a legal designation for the ownership of property by non-governmental Capacity (law), legal entities. Private property is distinguishable from public property, which is owned by a state entity, and from Collective ownership ...
from collectivisation. He denounced the Soviet Union's involvement in the Republic, as he considered their offer of military aid in exchange for political influence to amount to a form of
blackmail Blackmail is a criminal act of coercion using a threat. As a criminal offense, blackmail is defined in various ways in common law jurisdictions. In the United States, blackmail is generally defined as a crime of information, involving a thr ...
. He accused the Soviets of attempting to sabotage the social revolution and control the anti-fascist movement in Spain. His vocal anti-Stalinism drew the attention of Soviet consul
Vladimir Antonov-Ovseenko Vladimir Alexandrovich Antonov-Ovseenko (; ; 9 March 1883 – 10 February 1938), real surname Ovseenko, party aliases 'Bayonet' () and 'Nikita' (), literary pseudonym A. Galsky (), was a prominent Bolshevik leader, Soviet statesman, mili ...
, who attempted to use his position to suppress him. Berneri also criticised the liberal democracies of
Western Europe Western Europe is the western region of Europe. The region's extent varies depending on context. The concept of "the West" appeared in Europe in juxtaposition to "the East" and originally applied to the Western half of the ancient Mediterranean ...
for turning a blind eye to the rise of fascism, out of fear of the consequences of a successful revolution in Spain. He predicted that if the liberal democracies did not confront fascism in Spain, then it would inevitably lead to a
second world war World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
. Berneri's critical articles came to a head in April 1937, when he published an open letter to Federica Montseny, the anarchist Minister of Health. He complained that in the government's attempts to appease French and British interests by disarming revolutionaries and blocking Moroccan independence, the war had deteriorated into a war of survival. He blamed the Stalinists, who had openly announced their intention to purge anarcho-syndicalist and
Trotskyist Trotskyism (, ) is the political ideology and branch of Marxism developed by Russian revolutionary and intellectual Leon Trotsky along with some other members of the Left Opposition and the Fourth International. Trotsky described himself as an ...
elements of the Republican faction, while the anarchist press remained silent. In the subsequent weeks, Berneri was one of the few anarchists who wrote in defense of the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (POUM). He praised the anarchists who were attempting to moderate between the POUM and the PCE, as he believed that the dispute was in violation of military discipline, and noted that the POUM had helped the anarchists resist the military coup in spite of their ideological differences. POUM member Víctor Alba later praised Berneri for supporting the party, at a time when he believed anarchist support for the POUM was insufficient. In another appeal to Montseny, Berneri declared that their choice was between "victory over Franco through revolutionary war or defeat".


Death

On 3 May 1937, Berneri gave what would be his last radio speech, paying homage to the communist philosopher
Antonio Gramsci Antonio Francesco Gramsci ( , ; ; 22 January 1891 – 27 April 1937) was an Italian Marxist philosophy, Marxist philosopher, Linguistics, linguist, journalist, writer, and politician. He wrote on philosophy, Political philosophy, political the ...
following his death in a fascist prison. That same day, violent street clashes between anarchists and the Catalan government broke out in Barcelona, in what came to be known as the May Days. Berneri publicly denounced the Unified Socialist Party of Catalonia (PSUC) and its leader Joan Comorera, as well as PCE leader Santiago Carrillo, Interior Minister Ángel Galarza, and the right-wing Catalan nationalists of , whom he held responsible for what he termed a " counter-revolution". According to Augustin Souchy, on the morning of 4 May, Berneri's home was surrounded by
Mossos d'Esquadra The ''Mossos d'Esquadra'' (; ), also known as the ''Policia de la Generalitat de Catalunya'' and informally as ''Mossos'', is the State police#Spain, regional police force in the autonomous community of Catalonia. They trace their origins back ...
(Catalan police force) and members of the PSUC, the latter wearing red armbands. The police warned Berneri and his friend, a fellow Italian anarchist named Francesco Barbieri, that there was shooting taking place in the neighbourhood. Two men wearing red armbands then searched his home and carried away some of his documents. According to Souchy, Berneri's investigation into Fascist Italy's expansionist plans in the Mediterranean were among the documents removed. Later that afternoon, the police returned to confiscate weapons belonging to Italian militiamen and took note of the building. By that time, the building had fallen behind government lines, which kept Berneri confined there. On 5 May 1937, at about 17:00, Berneri and Barbieri were arrested in their home. According to Souchy, 12 agents had entered the building, half of which were Mossos and the other half were PSUC members. When they asked the group leader for his name, he showed them his
identity card An identity document (abbreviated as ID) is a documentation, document proving a person's Identity (social science), identity. If the identity document is a plastic card it is called an ''identity card'' (abbreviated as ''IC'' or ''ID card''). ...
, which had the number 1109; Beneri and Barbieri were then charged with counterrevolutionary activities. The whole exchange was witnessed by Barbieri's wife. They were taken away from their home and then summarily executed later that night; both of them were unarmed. Their bodies were discovered near the Palace of the Generalitat of Catalonia, by members of the
Spanish Red Cross The Spanish Red Cross is the national affiliate of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and a nonprofit humanitarian institution in Spain. It was founded by Royal Order by Isabel II in the wake of the Third Carlist War. Referen ...
. Their bodies were then taken to the Hospital Clinic, where an autopsy found that they had been killed by machine gun fire. Their bodies were identified by their wives, who were accompanied by the Italian-American journalist Enrico Arrigoni. The street fighting in Barcelona continued on for two more days, before a shortage of food on the anarchist side forced them to abandon the barricades. The assassination of Berneri was not officially announced until 8 May, after the fighting in Barcelona had stopped. ''Solidaridad Obrera'' did not report the details until 11 May, and censored some of the details to avoid identifying the men who searched Berneri's house as members of the PSUC. It also linked his murder to the recent disappearance of French communist Marc Rhein. After hearing of Berneri's assassination, Luce Fabbri immediately reached out to Giovanna Berneri and her daughters, offering her support; she was one of the first people to publicly denounce his assassination. Some Spanish anarchists carried out a
criminal investigation Criminal investigation is an applied science that involves the study of facts that are then used to inform criminal trials. A complete criminal investigation can include Search and seizure, searching, interviews, interrogations, Evidence (law), ...
of the killing, and identified an unnamed agent linked to the PSUC, but the investigation was forced to stop due to
political repression Political repression is the act of a state entity controlling a citizenry by force for political reasons, particularly for the purpose of restricting or preventing the citizenry's ability to take part in the political life of a society, thereby ...
. As no incontrovertible evidence has been found to establish who killed Berneri, multiple different hypotheses have been raised as to the identity and motive of the killers. Anarcho-syndicalists who were sympathetic to Berneri, including Augustin Souchy, Vernon Richards and Rudolf Rocker, attributed his murder to the Stalinists, citing his repeated and vocal criticisms he had made against them. On 29 May, ''Il Grido del Popolo'', the newspaper of the Italian Communist Party, printed an article celebrating Berneri's execution and claiming political responsibility for it, justifying it as an act of self-defense against a supporter of the anarchist uprising. In June 1937, the National Committee of the CNT blamed the uprising and the execution of Berneri on the '' Estat Català'', a
far-right Far-right politics, often termed right-wing extremism, encompasses a range of ideologies that are marked by ultraconservatism, authoritarianism, ultranationalism, and nativism. This political spectrum situates itself on the far end of the ...
Catalan nationalist party, who they claim to have killed him due to his extensive knowledge of Fascist Italy's operations in the Mediterranean. According to this narrative, it was members of the ''Estat Català'', not the PSUC, who had disguised themselves as police and murdered Bresci on orders from the OVRA. Catalan anarchist Joan Garcia Oliver later remarked that, although anarchists were predisposed at the time to blame the Stalinists for the murder, he believed it was also possible that the OVRA had been involved. Garcia Oliver noted the similarities between Berneri's murder and that of the Roselli brothers, who were killed shortly after him by members of '' La Cagoule'', acting under OVRA orders. Historians largely hold either the Stalinists or Catalan nationalists to have been responsible for Berneri's execution, although alternate theories have also emerged. Uruguayan historian believed Berneri was assassinated by a Francoist fifth column, under the direction of the OVRA, citing Berneri's anti-fascist publications, his surveillance by the OVRA, and his alleged involvement in a plot to assassinate Benito Mussolini. Following a conversation with Rama on the matter, Federica Montseny began to question her previous belief that Stalinists had killed Berneri, as both the fascists and communists had the motive and the means to kill him. In a letter to Burnett Bolloten, she stated that Berneri's death was likely to forever remain unsolved. Italian historians and Saverio Pechar believe Berneri was killed by agents of the interior minister Angel Galarza, after Italian anarchists had stolen a suitcase full of gold from him. According to this narrative, Galarza had ordered Berneri's assassination in order to prevent him from going public with evidence of the
embezzlement Embezzlement (from Anglo-Norman, from Old French ''besillier'' ("to torment, etc."), of unknown origin) is a type of financial crime, usually involving theft of money from a business or employer. It often involves a trusted individual taking ...
of public funds. Intelligence linking Galarza to the killing was presented to ministers of the
Spanish Socialist Workers' Party The Spanish Socialist Workers' Party ( , PSOE ) is a Social democracy, social democratic Updated as required.The PSOE is described as a social-democratic party by numerous sources: * * * * List of political parties in Spain, political party ...
(PSOE), reporting that he had employed Italian anarchists to find and seize any incriminating documents possessed by Berneri. British historian Helen Graham suggests that these Italian anarchists may also have been agents of the OVRA.


Political thought


Anarchism

Berneri was a strong supporter
anarcho-syndicalism Anarcho-syndicalism is an anarchism, anarchist organisational model that centres trade unions as a vehicle for class conflict. Drawing from the theory of libertarian socialism and the practice of syndicalism, anarcho-syndicalism sees trade uni ...
and a member of the
Italian Syndicalist Union The Italian Syndicalist Union (; USI) is an Italian anarcho-syndicalist trade union. Established in 1912 by a confederation of " houses of labour", the USI led a series of general strikes throughout its early years, culminating with the Red W ...
(USI). He believed that the best route to build the anarchist movement was through
trade union A trade union (British English) or labor union (American English), often simply referred to as a union, is an organization of workers whose purpose is to maintain or improve the conditions of their employment, such as attaining better wages ...
s, although he distrusted and rejected
union representative A union representative, union steward, or shop steward is an employee of an organization or company who represents and defends the interests of their fellow employees as a trades/labour union member and official. Rank-and-file members of the un ...
s. He also disliked
individualist anarchism Individualist anarchism or anarcho-individualism is a collection of anarchist Anarchism is a political philosophy and Political movement, movement that seeks to abolish all institutions that perpetuate authority, coercion, or Social hi ...
, which he believed held an outsized influence on the anarchist movement, relative to its small size. He nevertheless believed that a
diversity of tactics Diversity of tactics is a phenomenon wherein a social movement makes periodic use of force for disruptive or defensive purposes, stepping beyond the limits of nonviolent resistance, but also stopping short of total militarization. It also refer ...
was important, as it would allow anarchist groups to pursue their own goals while not interfering with the activities of others. Like other members of the USI, Berneri praised the original conception of the
Soviet The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
as a
workers' council A workers' council, also called labour council, is a type of council in a workplace or a locality made up of workers or of temporary and instantly revocable delegates elected by the workers in a locality's workplaces. In such a system of polit ...
, which he described as a model of
self-governance Self-governance, self-government, self-sovereignty or self-rule is the ability of a person or group to exercise all necessary functions of regulation without intervention from an external authority (sociology), authority. It may refer to pers ...
capable of preparing people for
autonomy In developmental psychology and moral, political, and bioethical philosophy, autonomy is the capacity to make an informed, uncoerced decision. Autonomous organizations or institutions are independent or self-governing. Autonomy can also be ...
. He claimed it to be wholly in accordance with anarchist ideals, distinguishing the workers' council from the
bureaucratic Bureaucracy ( ) is a system of organization where laws or regulatory authority are implemented by civil servants or non-elected officials (most of the time). Historically, a bureaucracy was a government administration managed by departments ...
and
authoritarian socialism Authoritarian socialism, or socialism from above, is an Economic system, economic and political system supporting some form of socialist economics while rejecting Pluralism (political philosophy), political pluralism. As a term, it represents a s ...
of the
Bolsheviks The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, were a radical Faction (political), faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split with the Mensheviks at the 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, ...
. For this position, Berneri was criticised as "philo-Soviet" by the individualist anarchist Raffaele Schiavina. Berneri developed an internationalist anarchist approach to geopolitics, which placed the
globalisation Globalization is the process of increasing interdependence and integration among the economies, markets, societies, and cultures of different countries worldwide. This is made possible by the reduction of barriers to international trade, th ...
of
revolution In political science, a revolution (, 'a turn around') is a rapid, fundamental transformation of a society's class, state, ethnic or religious structures. According to sociologist Jack Goldstone, all revolutions contain "a common set of elements ...
in opposition to the rise of globalised totalitarianism. He called for anarchists to rid themselves of any '' a prioiri'' ideological convictions and to stop putting off discussions of tactics and goals until a later date. He worried that halting the progress of the revolutionary movement could present a danger to it, due to the inherent
status quo bias A status quo bias or default bias is a cognitive bias which results from a preference for the maintenance of one's existing state of affairs. The current baseline (or status quo) is taken as a reference point, and any change from that baseline is p ...
of the majority of people. He also rejected any affiliation with political parties, which he believed maintained themselves at the expense of revolutionary action. Berneri was harshly critical of
abstention Abstention is a term in election procedure for when a participant in a Voting, vote either does not go to vote (on election day) or, in parliamentary procedure, is present during the vote but does not cast a ballot. Abstention must be contrast ...
from electoral participation, which he believed had become a
dogma Dogma, in its broadest sense, is any belief held definitively and without the possibility of reform. It may be in the form of an official system of principles or doctrines of a religion, such as Judaism, Roman Catholicism, Protestantism, or Islam ...
which anarchists held to regardless of the circumstances. Berneri accepted democratic participation in certain contexts, particularly when it came to forms of
direct democracy Direct democracy or pure democracy is a form of democracy in which the Election#Electorate, electorate directly decides on policy initiatives, without legislator, elected representatives as proxies, as opposed to the representative democracy m ...
such as
referendum A referendum, plebiscite, or ballot measure is a Direct democracy, direct vote by the Constituency, electorate (rather than their Representative democracy, representatives) on a proposal, law, or political issue. A referendum may be either bin ...
s. He based his opposition to abstentionism on previous works by
Mikhail Bakunin Mikhail Alexandrovich Bakunin. Sometimes anglicized to Michael Bakunin. ( ; – 1 July 1876) was a Russian revolutionary anarchist. He is among the most influential figures of anarchism and a major figure in the revolutionary socialist, s ...
and Errico Malatesta, and his views were supported by Luigi Bertoni and . Drawing from
Peter Kropotkin Pyotr Alexeyevich Kropotkin (9 December 1842 – 8 February 1921) was a Russian anarchist and geographer known as a proponent of anarchist communism. Born into an aristocratic land-owning family, Kropotkin attended the Page Corps and later s ...
's critiques of
centralisation Centralisation or centralization (American English) is the process by which the activities of an organisation, particularly those regarding planning, decision-making, and framing strategies and policies, become concentrated within a particular ...
and the works of Carlo Cattaneo, Berneri advocated for
federalism Federalism is a mode of government that combines a general level of government (a central or federal government) with a regional level of sub-unit governments (e.g., provinces, State (sub-national), states, Canton (administrative division), ca ...
and municipalism as an alternative to
statism In political science, statism or etatism (from French, ''état'' 'state') is the doctrine that the political authority of the state is legitimate to some degree. This may include economic and social policy, especially in regard to taxation ...
. Citing Kropotkin and Malatesta, as well as
Louise Michel Louise Michel (; 29 May 1830 – 9 January 1905) was a teacher and prominent figure during the Paris Commune. Following her penal transportation to New Caledonia she began to embrace anarchism, and upon her return to France she emerged as an im ...
and Pietro Gori, Berneri advocated for an anarchist form of
humanism Humanism is a philosophy, philosophical stance that emphasizes the individual and social potential, and Agency (philosophy), agency of human beings, whom it considers the starting point for serious moral and philosophical inquiry. The me ...
, although he maintained a position in favour of
class conflict In political science, the term class conflict, class struggle, or class war refers to the economic antagonism and political tension that exist among social classes because of clashing interests, competition for limited resources, and inequali ...
. Berneri rejected the idea of "
the people The People may refer to: Legal jargon * The People, term used to refer to the people in general, in legal documents * "We the People of the United States", from the Preamble to the U. S. Constitution * In philosophy, economics, and political scienc ...
" as a homogenous entity with a
general will In political philosophy, the general will () is the will of the people as a whole. The term was made famous by 18th-century Genevan philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau. It can be considered as an early, informal predecessor to the idea of a social ...
.


Anti-fascism

Berneri was part of a generation of Italian anarchists for whom anti-fascism defined their activism and political philosophy. From the moment street violence between fascists and anti-fascists began to accelerate in 1921, anti-fascism became a central part of Berneri's writings. Berneri developed a cultural and psychological analysis of fascism, to complement existing economistic understandings of it as a new phase of
capitalism Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their use for the purpose of obtaining profit. This socioeconomic system has developed historically through several stages and is defined by ...
. He believed that the fascists, despite their perceived low intellectual capacities, had been able to defeat the Italian labour movement due to
Benito Mussolini Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (29 July 188328 April 1945) was an Italian politician and journalist who, upon assuming office as Prime Minister of Italy, Prime Minister, became the dictator of Fascist Italy from the March on Rome in 1922 un ...
's performative and dramatic personality (comparing him to an
actor An actor (masculine/gender-neutral), or actress (feminine), is a person who portrays a character in a production. The actor performs "in the flesh" in the traditional medium of the theatre or in modern media such as film, radio, and television. ...
). Berneri fiercely criticised
racism Racism is the belief that groups of humans possess different behavioral traits corresponding to inherited attributes and can be divided based on the superiority of one Race (human categorization), race or ethnicity over another. It may also me ...
and antisemitism, which he depicted as a Folie à deux, shared psychosis based in pseudoscience, and dismissed Race (human categorization), racial categorisations as a fiction designed to justify colonialism and totalitarianism. Sociologist Federico Ferretti argued that Berneri's anti-racist ideas presaged contemporary critical race theory. Berneri also wrote about Jewish assimilation as a form of Self-hating Jew, internalised antisemitism, for which he received praise from the French Zionism, Zionist André Spire. He criticised Freemasonry for its "ambiguous form of anti-fascism", which he believed to act in the interests of the "bourgeoisie", and cautioned against anarchist participation in the Masonic movement.


Legacy


Preservation of writings

Berneri's work is well known in Italian scholarship, having contributed to a number of contemporary philosophical and sociological debates, but most of his writings have not been translated into the English language. Many of Berneri's writings were preserved in his family archive in Emilia. Due to his short life, much of which was spent in exile, Berneri was never able to collect and systematise his ideas, which remained scattered throughout various different publications, notes and letters. When archivists and editors began to collect his works together into single volumes, they excised parts that conflicted with their own views and placed him in the position of an infallible martyr of the Italian anarchist movement. In 1973, the Iberian Liberation Movement clandestinely published new Spanish translations of Berneri's works. Frank Mintz subsequently translated them into French and, in 1978, they were translated into English by Cienfuegos Press.


Debate over unorthodox views

Italian liberal scholars have argued that Berneri's work represented a "heretical" deviation from anarchist orthodoxy. This characterisation of Berneri's views as "heretical" came from his conflict with the Galleanisti, Galleanists of the insurrectionary anarchism, anti-organisational tendency, his criticism of electoral abstention, his advocacy of federalism and his humanist philosophy. Although at the time they were a minority tendency in the Italian anarchist movement, later interpretations by liberal scholars Pietro Adamo and Carlo De Maria argued that the anti-organisationalists were themselves the "orthodox anarchists" and thus that Berneri was actually closer to liberalism than anarchism. Gianni Carrozza and Federico Ferretti have rejected this characterisation, which they consider to be misleading and lacking in historical context. Ferretti argues that, although anarchism has always been too plural to have a single orthodoxy, the mainstream tendency during Berneri's time was that of pro-organisational anarchist communism. Ferretti pointed to the existence of Possibilism (politics), possiblist tendencies in the anarchist movement, as well as the participation of the CNT in the 1936 Spanish general election, as examples of electoral participation by anarchists. He also highlighted the long history of Italian anarchists being influenced by federalists of the Risorgimento period, with Malatesta and Fabbri having been influenced by Giuseppe Garibaldi, Giuseppe Mazzini and Carlo Pisacane, among others. Ferretti concluded that, if any orthodoxy existed among the Italian anarchist movement of the time, then Berneri was a part of it.


Selected works


"Lenin is a-coming"
(''Il grido della rivolta'', June 1920)
"Regarding our critiques of Bolshevism"
(''Umanità Nova'', June 1922)
"Against the Racist Delirium"
(Buenos Aires, February 1935)
"Abstentionism and anarchism"
(''L’Adunata dei Refrattari'', April 1936)

(''Guerra di Classe'', October 1936)

(''Guerra di Classe'', November 1936)

(''Guerra di Classe'', December 1936)

(''Guerra di Classe'', February 1937)

(''Guerra di Classe'', March 1937)

(''Guerra di Classe'', April 1937)

(''Guerra di Classe'', May 1937)
"In Defence of the POUM"
(''Guerra di Classe'', May 1937)

(''Guerra di Classe'', July 1937)


References


Bibliography

* * * * * *


Further reading

* * * * * *


External links


Berneri Archive
Selected Writings
-> {{DEFAULTSORT:Berneri, Camillo 1897 births 1937 deaths 20th-century anarchists 20th-century Italian journalists 20th-century Italian philosophers Academic staff of the University of Florence Anarcho-syndicalists Assassinated anarchists Death conspiracy theories Deaths by firearm in Spain Foreign nationals imprisoned in France Foreign volunteers in the Spanish Civil War (Republican faction) Italian anarchists Italian anti-capitalists Italian anti-fascists Italian Anti-Francoists Italian exiles Italian expatriates in Belgium Italian expatriates in France Italian expatriates in Germany Italian expatriates in Luxembourg Italian expatriates in the Netherlands Italian expatriates in Spain Italian male journalists Italian military personnel of the Spanish Civil War Italian military personnel of World War I Italian people murdered abroad Italian people of the Spanish Civil War Italian Socialist Party politicians People from Lodi, Lombardy People murdered in Spain Unione Sindacale Italiana members Unsolved murders in Spain