Calypso (music)

Calypso is a style of Caribbean music that originated in Trinidad and Tobago from Afro-Trinidadians during the early- to mid-19th century and spread to the rest of the Caribbean Antilles by the mid-20th century. Its rhythms can be traced back to West African Kaiso and the arrival of French planters and their slaves from the French Antilles in the 18th century.

It is characterized by highly rhythmic and harmonic vocals, and was historically most often sung in a French creole and led by a griot. As calypso developed, the role of the griot became known as a '' chantuelle'' and eventually, '' calypsonian''. As English replaced "patois" ( Antillean) as the dominant language, calypso migrated into English, and in so doing it attracted more attention from the government. It allowed the masses to challenge the actions of the unelected Governor and Legislative Council, and the elected town councils of Port of Spain and San Fernando. Calypso continued to play an important role in political expression.

Calypso in the Caribbean includes a range of genres, including benna in Antigua and Barbuda; mento, a style of Jamaican folk music that greatly influenced ska, the precursor to rocksteady, and reggae; spouge, a style of Barbadian popular music; Dominica cadence-lypso, which mixed calypso with the cadence of Haiti; and soca music, a style of kaiso/calypso, with influences from chutney, soul, funk, Latin and cadence-lypso.

Etymology

It is thought that the name "calypso" was originally "kaiso" which is now believed to come from Efik "ka isu" ("go on!") and Ibibio "kaa iso" ("continue, go on"), used in urging someone on or in backing a contestant.Richard Allsopp, ''Dictionary of Caribbean English Usage'' (Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 131. There is also a Trinidadian term "cariso" that means "old-time" calypsos. The term "calypso" is recorded from the 1930s onwards. Alternatively, the insert for ''The Rough Guide to Calypso and Soca'' (published by World Music Network) favours John Cowley's arguments in ''Carnival, Canboulay and Calypso: Traditions in the Making,'' that the word might be a corruption of the French ''carrouseaux'' and through the process of patois and Anglicization became ''caliso'' and then finally "calypso"; however, Cowley also notes that the first mention of the word "calypso" is given in a description of a dance in 1882 by Abbé Masse.John Cowley
''Carnival, Canboulay and Calypso: Traditions in the Making''
, Cambridge University Press, p. 98.

History of Calypso

Calypso music has its roots in Trinidad in the 17th century from the West African Kaiso and canboulay music brought by enslaved Africans brought to the Caribbean islands to work on sugar plantations.Calypso Worldwide
Retrieved 27 November 2020 The Africans brought to toil on sugar plantations were stripped of all connections to their homeland and family and their communication opportunities were limited. They used calypso to mock the slave masters and to communicate with each other. Many early calypsos were sung in French Creole by an individual called a griot. As calypso developed, the role of the griot became known as a ''chantuelle'' and eventually, '' calypsonian''.

Modern calypso, however, began in the 19th century as a fusion of disparate elements ranging from the masquerade song '' lavway'', French Creole '' belair'' and the calinda stick-fighting chantwell. Also early in its recording years were influences from Venezuelan paseos. Calypso's early rise was closely connected with the adoption of Carnival by Trinidadian slaves, including canboulay drumming and the music masquerade processions. The French brought Carnival to Trinidad, and calypso competitions at Carnival grew in popularity, especially after the abolition of slavery in 1834.

Musical Features

Rhythms

The heartbeat of calypso remains deeply rooted in African traditions, particularly in its use of polyrhythms and off-beat accents.Toussaint, M. (2009). Trinidad Calypso as postmodernism in the diaspora: linking rhythms, lyrics, and the ancestral spirits. ''Research in African Literatures'', ''40''(1), 137+. https://link-gale-com.cbu.idm.oclc.org/apps/doc/A193408079/AONE?u=capebret&sid=bookmark-AONE&xid=bb943fc9 These rhythmic patterns, which can be traced back to West African musical practices, have been preserved. They have been incorporated into the playing of modern instruments like synthesizers and drum machines.

The rhythmic foundation of calypso music is traditionally built upon a syncopated 2/4 or 4/4 time signature, integrating the African-derived polyrhythms that characterize many Caribbean musical forms.(''Calypso Music Guide: A Brief History of Calypso Music - 2024 - MasterClass'', 2020) The distinctive "calypso beat" incorporates several key elements that define its sound.

The call-and-response vocal patterns, rooted in West African musical traditions, create an interactive dynamic between the lead singer and chorus that is fundamental to calypso's structure.

Harmonically, calypso tends to employ repetitive chord progressions, most commonly using simple I-IV-V (also known as 1-4-5) structures that allow for lyrical flexibility and audience participation.

Lyrics

Calypso lyrics have always been used as a voice for the people, addressing social, political, and spiritual themes. In the postmodern era, calypso's lyrics have expanded to include global issues. Themes such as race, identity, and cultural reclamation are common, often delivered with humour and wit. The call-and-response technique, common from African musical traditions, reinforces the communal nature of calypso performances. Audience participation is key, as listeners engage in decoding hidden meanings and forming collective interpretations.Phillips, E. M. (2006). Recognising The Language of Calypso as “Symbolic Action” in Resolving Conflict in The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. ''Caribbean Quarterly'', ''52''(1), 53–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/00086495.2006.11672287 Calypso lyrics have long been essential for social commentary and cultural expression. The tradition of social and political satire in calypso is evident in songs from musicians such as Mighty Sparrow.Phillips, E. M. (2006). Recognising The Language of Calypso as “Symbolic Action” in Resolving Conflict in The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. ''Caribbean Quarterly'', ''52''(1), 53–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/00086495.2006.11672287

Ancestral Religiosity

The spiritual connection to African roots is a defining feature of calypso. Artists like Ella Andall and David Rudder have incorporated Orisha/Shango traditions into their music, creating a powerful sense of connection to the African diaspora.

Instrumentation

The instrumentation of calypso music has undergone transformation since its early development. In its formative years, calypso was performed primarily with acoustic instruments including guitar, cuatro, violin, and various hand drums, reflecting both African and European musical influences. The steelpan, a symbol of Trinidadian culture, has roots in West African drumming traditions used for communication. Enslaved Africans in Trinidad preserved their culture through underground Carnivals, blending music, dance, and costumes despite colonial efforts to suppress their traditions. Musicians adapted by using bamboo and eventually metal objects, leading to the creation of steelpans in the 1930s and 1940s. In contemporary practice, modern calypso and soca have embraced electronic instruments, with synthesizers and drum machines now playing prominent roles in production while maintaining the genre's traditional rhythmic foundations.

Recordings

The first identifiably calypso genre song was recorded in 1912, by Lovey's String Band while visiting New York City. In 1914, the second calypso recordings—including the first sung in English—were done by chantwell Julian Whiterose, better known as the Iron Duke and famous calinda stick-fighter. Jules Sims would also record vocal calypsos. The majority of these calypsos of the World War I era were instrumentals by Lovey and Lionel Belasco. Perhaps due to the constraints of the wartime economy, no recordings of note were produced until the late 1920s and early 1930s, when the "golden era" of calypso would cement the style, form, and phrasing of the music.

Calypso evolved into a way of spreading news around Trinidad. Politicians, journalists and public figures often debated the content of each song, and many islanders considered these songs the most reliable news source. Calypsonians pushed the boundaries of free speech as their lyrics spread news of any topic relevant to island life, including speaking out against political corruption.

Even with this censorship, calypsos continued to push boundaries, with a variety of ways to slip songs past the scrutinizing eyes of the editor. Double entendre, or double-speak, was one way, as was the practice of denouncing countries such as Germany and its annexation of Poland, while making pointed references toward the colonial government's policies in Trinidad. Sex, scandal, gossip, politics, local news, and insulting other calypsonians were the order of the day in classic calypso, just as it is today with classic hip-hop. And just as the hip-hop of today, the music sparked shock and outrage in moralistic sections of society.

Countless recordings were dumped at sea in the name of censorship, although in truth, rival US companies did this in the spirit of underhanded competition, claiming that the rivals' material was unfit for US consumption. Decca Records lost untold pressings in this manner, as did its rival, RCA's Bluebird label.

An entrepreneur named Eduardo de Sá Gomes played a significant role in spreading calypso in its early days. Sá Gomes, a Portuguese immigrant who owned a local music and phonograph equipment shop in Port of Spain, promoted the genre and gave financial support to the local artists. In March 1934, he sent Roaring Lion and Attila the Hun to New York City to record; they became the first calypsonians to record abroad, bringing the genre out of the West Indies and into pop culture.Funk, Ray
"Roaring Lion (Raphael Arius Kairiyama De Leon AKA Hubert Raphael Charles, 15.6.08 – 11.7.99)".
Lord Invader was quick to follow, and stayed in New York City after a protracted legal case involving the theft of his song " Rum and Coca-Cola", a hit by the Andrews Sisters. He made his home there along with Wilmoth Houdini, and became one of the great calypsonians of the US.

Early forms of calypso were also similar to jazz (which came after) such as Sans Humanitae. In this extempo ( extemporaneous) melody calypsonians lyricise impromptu, commenting socially or insulting each other, "sans humanité" or "no mercy" (which is again a reference to French influence).

Selected recordings

* ''Deliso'' (Atilla The Hun, 1938)
* ''Suzi-Qu'' (Roaring Lion, 1940)
* ''My Intention Is War'' (Lord Invader, 1946)
* ''Bei Mir Bist Du Schoen'' (The Duke of Iron, 1950)
* ''General Election'' (Lord Beginner, 1950)
* ''Court House Scandal'' (Calypso Mama, 1957)

Popularity

The first major stars of calypso started crossing over to new audiences worldwide in the late 1930s. Attila the Hun, Roaring Lion and Lord Invader were first, followed by Lord Kitchener, one of the longest-lasting calypso stars in history—he continued to release hit records until his death in 2000. 1944's "Rum and Coca-Cola" by the Andrews Sisters, a cover version of a Lord Invader song, became an American hit despite the song being a very critical commentary on the explosion of prostitution, inflation and other negative influences accompanying the American military bases in Trinidad at the time. Perhaps the most straightforward way to describe the focus of calypso is that it articulated itself as a form of protest against the authoritarian colonial culture which existed at the time.

In 1956 Mighty Sparrow won Trinida's Music contest. Calypso, especially a toned-down, commercial variant, became a worldwide craze with pop song " Banana Boat Song", or "Day-O", a traditional Jamaican folk song, was recorded by pop singer Harry Belafonte on his album '' Calypso'' (1956). ''Calypso'' was the first calypso record to sell more than a million copies. 1956 also saw the massive international hit " Jean and Dinah" by Mighty Sparrow. This song too was a sly commentary as a "plan of action" for the calypsonian on the widespread prostitution and the prostitutes' desperation after the closing of the U.S. naval base on Trinidad at Chaguaramas. In addition, the choral director Leonard De Paur recorded a calypso album in 1956 for Columbia Records featuring his choral arrangements of traditional Christmas music from Trinidad and Barbados, as well as the song Mary's Little Boy Child by Jester Hairston (''Calypso Christmas'', CL 923 Mono LP, 1956).

In the Broadway-theatre musical ''Jamaica'' (1957), Harold Arlen and Yip Harburg cleverly parodied "commercial" Belafonte-style calypso. Several films jumped on the calypso craze in 1957 such as '' Island in the Sun'' (20th Century Fox) that featured Belafonte and the low-budget films '' Calypso Joe'' ( Allied Artists), '' Calypso Heat Wave'' (Columbia Pictures), and '' Bop Girl Goes Calypso'' ( United Artists).
Robert Mitchum released an album, ''Calypso...Is Like So'' (1957), on Capitol Records, capturing the sound, spirit, and subtleties of the genre.
Dizzy Gillespie recorded a calypso album ''Jambo Caribe'' (1964) with James Moody and Kenny Barron.

Soul shouter Gary "US" Bonds released a calypso album ''Twist up Calypso'' (1962) on Legrand records, shortly after returning home from his military post in Port of Spain. Nithi Kanagaratnam from Sri Lanka sang calypso-styled songs in Tamil in 1968, which was a success and earned him the title "Father of Tamil Popular Music". Since Baila rhythm was popular in Sri Lanka, most of his songs were classified as Tamil Baila.

In the mid-1970s, women entered the calypso men's-oriented arena. Calypso Rose was the first woman to win the Trinidad Road March competition in 1977 with her song "Gimme More Tempo". The following year with "Come Leh We Jam", she won the "Calypso King " competition, the first time a woman had received the award. The competition's title was changed to Calypso Monarch in her honor.
The French and pioneer electronic musician Jean Michel Jarre released an album in 1990 called '' Waiting for Cousteau''. The album has four tracks: "Calypso", "Calypso part 2", "Calypso part 3 Fin de Siècle" and "Waiting for Cousteau". It was dedicated to Jacques-Yves Cousteau on his 80th birthday. This album had a special participation of the Amocco Renegades (a traditional steel-drum band from Trinidad and Tobago). In the first track is possible to notice a strong style influence. Calypso had another short burst of commercial interest when Tim Burton's horror/comedy film ''Beetlejuice'' (1988) was released, and used Belafonte's " Jump in the Line" as the soundtrack's headliner and also "The Banana Boat Song" in the dinner-party scene. Disney's song " Under the Sea", a calypso theme from '' The Little Mermaid'' won an Academy Award for Best Original Song in 1989 as well as the Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media in 1991.

In the late-1970s a new style, dubbed Soca music, emerged from the blending of calypso with elements of East Indian music as well as African American soul, funk, and rock. The soca music of the 1980s featured fast tempos, electric guitars and synthesizers, prominent melodic bass lines, and lyrics celebrating sensuality and dance. Many influential calypso singers including Ras Shorty I, Mighty Sparrow, Lord Kitchener, Calypso Rose, Super Blue, and David Rudder embraced the new style. Brooklyn became an important site for the production of soca records from the late 1970s through the early 1990s.

Although Calypso's native land is Trinidad, it is also very popular in a small "windward" island in the West Indies. This island is called Dominica, the nature island of the Caribbean. Dominicans, similar to Trinidadians also developed a keen interest in Caribbean genres such as Soca music, and Calypso in the late 1960's. Called ''Kaiso'' in French creole, Calypso is illustrated as a unique form of music, especially during the Carnival season. Dominicans mainly use this genre to express their concerns and feedback on the everyday affairs and happenings of their country. Most of the music pieces composed normally have a negative stigma attached to them, expressing dissatisfaction with how their current government choose to conduct the affairs of the country. The first Calypso monarch in Dominica who was crowned in 1959 was called "The Observer" and the longest reigning Calypso monarch is King Dice. The Calypso tent is not just limited to adult participation. There is also a section called Junior monarch where young children under the age of 14 are able to prepare and compete with their personally made Calypso pieces.

Calypso competitions usually commence in January and culminate in the Calypso monarch competition that are usually held the Saturday before Carnival in February. The winner becomes the Calypso King of that year and joins Miss Dominica, the carnival pageant winner of that year, in the traditional costume parade on Carnival Monday.

Sociopolitical influence

Calypso music has been used by Calypsonians to provide sociopolitical commentary. Prior to the independence of Trinidad and Tobago, calypsonians would use their music to express the daily struggles of living in Trinidad, critique racial and economic inequalities, express opinions on social order, and voice overall concerns for those living on the island.Blatter, Alfred (2007). ''Revisiting Music Theory: a guide to the practice'', p. 28. . During the colonial era, the Black lower class used calypso music to protest their poor economic situation and the discrimination which they were subjected to. Calypso music frequently was used as a form of musical protest.

During the independence movements of Trinidad and Tobago through the early 1950s up until 1962 when the nation gained independence, calypso lyrics frequently critiqued British colonial rule. Lyrics were made to express feelings towards colonial rule as being immoral and oppressive to Caribbean people. In particular, during the movement to independence, calypso music would include common messages of a desire for independence, opposition to colonial rule and empowerment for people of African descent.

Neville Marcano, known as the Growling Tiger, became notorious for creating songs calling for independence of Trinidad and Tobago. In his song titled "Abraham Lincoln Speech at Gettysburg", Tiger used inspirations from Abraham Lincoln's famous Gettysburg address to draw on values of liberty, equality and democracy. These three principles paralleled some of many ideas circulating during the nationalist movement in Trinidad and Tobago. His lyrics struck with those in support of an independent Trinidadian nation hoping to instill similar principles in their own free nation.

Lord Kitchener, a largely known Calypsonian, became noted for his politically critical lyrics in his music. Kitchener used calypso to shed light on the grievances of the windrush generation, a generation of Caribbean families migrating from the islands to England in response to increased labor demands after World War II. Kitchener's 1948 song "Windrush" was written in two versions. The first version gained more global popularity as the lyrics expressed gratitude and appreciation for British colonial rule. However, second version found greater popularity amongst Caribbean people themselves as the lyrics conveyed a story of West Indian immigrants facing discrimination and cultural alienation while living in Britain. Although Kitchener's alternate version of "Windrush" did not gain as much commercial popularity, the duality of the two versions exemplify how calypso music was used as an outlet for social commentary.

After Trinidad and Tobago gained independence in 1962, calypso music continued to be used as an outlet for political commentary. With Eric Williams serving as the first Prime Minister of an independent Trinidad and Tobago, calypsonian Mighty Sparrow released his song "William the Conqueror" where he praises Williams' victory and prides the island in its newfound independence. Sparrow sings:

I am no politician, but I could understand if it wasn't for Brother Willie and his ability, Trinidad wouldn't go neither come. We used to vote for food and rum but nowadays we eating all the Indians and them. And in the ending, we voting PNM. Praise little Eric, rejoice and be glad. We have a better future here in Trinidad.

Calypso music has also been used by politicians to promote political agendas through Calypso competitions. The origins of calypso competitions dates back to the early 19th century post emancipation where formerly enslaved communities would hold calypso wars showcasing their singing and dancing. Later in 1953 Calypso competitions held the same showcasing nature, but became politicized as the People's National Movement (PNM) took over as the main organizer of competitions. The PNM used the competitions to combat social and class divisions by attracting participants of varying social status to participate and attend the competitions. The idea was to claim a national cultural identity and promote national unity.

Calypsos have also closely described the evolution of West Indian cricket with more than 500 calypsos about cricket.

Globalization and Subgenres

The postmodern era has seen calypso embrace globalization, leading to the creation of new subgenres that blend traditional elements with contemporary influences.Toussaint, M. (2009). Trinidad Calypso as postmodernism in the diaspora: linking rhythms, lyrics, and the ancestral spirits. ''Research in African Literatures'', ''40''(1), 137+. https://link-gale-com.cbu.idm.oclc.org/apps/doc/A193408079/AONE?u=capebret&sid=bookmark-AONE&xid=bb943fc9

* Soca: Emerging in the 1970s, soca music blends calypso with East Indian rhythms, soul, funk, and rock. This fusion has allowed soca to gain international popularity while maintaining its Trinidadian roots.
* Rapso: A blend of calypso and rap, rapso emphasizes social and political commentary, often addressing issues faced by the African diaspora. Artists like Brother Resistance have used rapso to challenge societal norms and advocate for cultural reclamation.
* Gospelypso: This subgenre combines calypso rhythms with Christian themes, demonstrating the genre’s adaptability and its ability to connect with diverse audiences.

See also

* Cadence-lypso
* Canboulay
* Calypso Monarch
* Extempo
* Soukous
* Marrabenta
* List of calypso musicians
* List of calypso-like genres
* List of Caribbean music genres
* Mento, a Jamaican folk music related to Calypso
* Soca music
* Brega pop

Footnotes

References

* Allen, Ray. ,''Jump Up! Caribbean Carnival Music in New York City'' (Oxford University Press, 2019). . 
* Hill, Donald R. ''Calypso Calaloo: Early Carnival Music in Trinidad'' (1993). . (cloth); (pbk). University Press of Florida. 2nd edition: Temple University Press (2006); .
* Guilbault, Jocelyn. ''Governing Sound: The Cultural Politics of Trinidad's Carnival Musics'' (University of Chicago Press, 2007). .
* Mendes, John (1986). ''Cote ce Cote la Trinidad and Tobago Dictionary''. John Mendes, Arima, Trinidad.
* Munro, Hope. ''What She Do: Women in Afro-Trinidadian Music'' (University of Mississippi Press, 2016). I.
* Quevedo, Raymond (Atilla the Hun). 1983. ''Atilla's Kaiso: a short history of Trinidad calypso'' (1983). University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad. (Includes the words to many old calypsos as well as musical scores for some of Atilla's calypsos.)
* Rohlehr, Gordon. ''A Scuffling of Islands: Essays on Calypso (''Lexicon Trinidad LTD, 2004), .*
*Turner, John W. Rhythms of Resistance: African Musical Traditions in the Caribbean. Greenwood Press, 1998.
*Thieme, John. ‘Rewriting the People’s Newspaper: Trinidadian Calypso after 1956’. In ''A Companion to Poetic Genres,'' ed. Erik Martiny, Oxford and Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012, pp. 446-58.
*Dobrian, Chris. Calypso Music: A Multifaceted Genre. University of California Press, 2010.

External links

Calypsonians.com
* List of calypso songs about cricket

{{DEFAULTSORT:Calypso music
Calypso music
Kaiso
Culture of the Caribbean
Trinidad and Tobago styles of music
Music of the African diaspora