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Camulodunum ( ; ), the
Ancient Roman In modern historiography, ancient Rome is the Roman people, Roman civilisation from the founding of Rome, founding of the Italian city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, collapse of the Western Roman Em ...
name for what is now
Colchester Colchester ( ) is a city in northeastern Essex, England. It is the second-largest settlement in the county, with a population of 130,245 at the 2021 United Kingdom census, 2021 Census. The demonym is ''Colcestrian''. Colchester occupies the ...
in
Essex Essex ( ) is a Ceremonial counties of England, ceremonial county in the East of England, and one of the home counties. It is bordered by Cambridgeshire and Suffolk to the north, the North Sea to the east, Kent across the Thames Estuary to the ...
, was an important castrum and city in
Roman Britain Roman Britain was the territory that became the Roman province of ''Britannia'' after the Roman conquest of Britain, consisting of a large part of the island of Great Britain. The occupation lasted from AD 43 to AD 410. Julius Caes ...
, and the first capital of the province. A temporary " strapline" in the 1960s identifying it as the "oldest recorded town in Britain" has become popular with residents and is still used on heritage roadsigns on trunk road approaches.McWhirr, Alan (1988) Roman Crafts and Industries. Published by Shire Publications LTD. () Originally the site of the Brythonic-
Celt The Celts ( , see Names of the Celts#Pronunciation, pronunciation for different usages) or Celtic peoples ( ) were a collection of Indo-European languages, Indo-European peoples. "The Celts, an ancient Indo-European people, reached the apoge ...
ic oppidum of Camulodunon (meaning "stronghold of Camulos"), capital of the Trinovantes and later the
Catuvellauni The Catuvellauni (Common Brittonic: *''Catu-wellaunī'', "war-chiefs") were a Celtic tribe or state of southeastern Britain before the Roman conquest, attested by inscriptions into the 4th century. The fortunes of the Catuvellauni and thei ...
tribes, it was first mentioned by name on coinage minted by the chieftain Tasciovanus some time between 20 and 10 BC. The Roman town began life as a Roman legionary base constructed in the AD 40s on the site of the Brythonic-Celtic fortress following its conquest by the Emperor
Claudius Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; ; 1 August 10 BC – 13 October AD 54), or Claudius, was a Roman emperor, ruling from AD 41 to 54. A member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, Claudius was born to Nero Claudius Drusus, Drusus and Ant ...
. After the early town was destroyed during the Iceni rebellion in AD 60/61, it was rebuilt, reaching its zenith in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. During this time it was known by its official name Colonia Claudia Victricensis ('), often shortened to Colonia Victricensis, and as ''Camulodunum'', a Latinised version of its original Brythonic name. The town was home to a large classical
temple A temple (from the Latin ) is a place of worship, a building used for spiritual rituals and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. By convention, the specially built places of worship of some religions are commonly called "temples" in Engli ...
, two theatres (including Britain's largest), several Romano-British temples, Britain's only known chariot circus, Britain's first town walls, several large cemeteries and over 50 known mosaics and tessellated pavements. It may have reached a population of 30,000 at its height.


Ptolemy names Camulodunum as being near Eboracum/York

In the second century AD,
Ptolemy Claudius Ptolemy (; , ; ; – 160s/170s AD) was a Greco-Roman mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer, and music theorist who wrote about a dozen scientific treatises, three of which were important to later Byzantine science, Byzant ...
, in his famous treatise Geographia, identified the base of the Sixth Legion—who governed the Brigantes, a tribe in Northern
Roman Britain Roman Britain was the territory that became the Roman province of ''Britannia'' after the Roman conquest of Britain, consisting of a large part of the island of Great Britain. The occupation lasted from AD 43 to AD 410. Julius Caes ...
—as being near Eboracum, which would eventually become
York York is a cathedral city in North Yorkshire, England, with Roman Britain, Roman origins, sited at the confluence of the rivers River Ouse, Yorkshire, Ouse and River Foss, Foss. It has many historic buildings and other structures, such as a Yor ...
. He referred to the legion's base as Camulodunum.


Camulodunon

Colchester is said to be the oldest recorded town in Britain on the grounds that it was mentioned by
Pliny the Elder Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/24 79), known in English as Pliny the Elder ( ), was a Roman Empire, Roman author, Natural history, naturalist, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the Roman emperor, emperor Vesp ...
, who died in AD 79, although the Celtic name of the town, ''Camulodunon'', appears on coins minted by tribal chieftain Tasciovanus in the period 2010 BC. Before the Roman conquest of Britain it was already a centre of power for Cunobelin known to Shakespeare as
Cymbeline ''Cymbeline'' (), also known as ''The Tragedie of Cymbeline'' or ''Cymbeline, King of Britain'', is a play by William Shakespeare set in British Iron Age, Ancient Britain () and based on legends that formed part of the Matter of Britain concer ...
king of the
Catuvellauni The Catuvellauni (Common Brittonic: *''Catu-wellaunī'', "war-chiefs") were a Celtic tribe or state of southeastern Britain before the Roman conquest, attested by inscriptions into the 4th century. The fortunes of the Catuvellauni and thei ...
(c. 5 BCAD 40), who minted coins there. Its
Celt The Celts ( , see Names of the Celts#Pronunciation, pronunciation for different usages) or Celtic peoples ( ) were a collection of Indo-European languages, Indo-European peoples. "The Celts, an ancient Indo-European people, reached the apoge ...
ic name, Camulodunon, variously represented as CA, CAM, CAMV, CAMVL and CAMVLODVNO on the coins of Cunobelinus, means 'the fortress of he war god Camulos'. During the 30s AD Camulodunon controlled a large swathe of Southern and Eastern Britain, with Cunobelin called "''King of the Britons''" by Roman writers. Camulodunon is sometimes popularly considered one of many possible sites around Britain for the legendary (perhaps mythical) Camelot of King Arthur, though the name ''Camelot'' (first mentioned by the 12th century French Arthurian storyteller
Chrétien de Troyes Chrétien de Troyes (; ; 1160–1191) was a French poet and trouvère known for his writing on King Arthur, Arthurian subjects such as Gawain, Lancelot, Perceval and the Holy Grail. Chrétien's chivalric romances, including ''Erec and Enide'' ...
) is most likely a corruption of '' Camlann'', a now unknown location first mentioned in the 10th century Welsh annalistic text Annales Cambriae, identified as the place where Arthur was slain in battle.


Iron Age ''Camulodunon''

The earliest
Iron Age The Iron Age () is the final epoch of the three historical Metal Ages, after the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age. It has also been considered as the final age of the three-age division starting with prehistory (before recorded history) and progre ...
defensive site at Colchester is the Pitchbury Ramparts earthwork north of the town between West Bergholt and Great Horkesley. The main earthwork defences of the Brythonic Celtic oppidum of ''Camulodunon'' were built later, beginning in the 1st century BC but most date from the 1st century AD. They are considered the most extensive of their kind in Britain. The defences consist of lines of ditches and ramparts, possibly palisaded with gateways, that mostly run parallel to each other in a north–south direction. The Iron Age settlement was protected by rivers on three sides, with the River Colne bounding the site to the north and east, and the Roman River valley forming the southern boundary; the earthworks were mostly designed to close off the western gap between these two river valleys.Denney, Patrick (2004) Colchester. Published by Tempus Publishing () Other earthworks close off eastern parts of the settlement. These earthworks gave the oppidum its Brythonic Celtic name – ''Camulodunon'' meant "the stronghold of Camulus", the British god of war. Together they enclose an area of , much larger than the area enclosed by the Iron Age defences at Wheathampstead ().The Colchester Archaeologist. Issue no. 22. (2009). (ISSN 0952-0988) The main sites within the bounds of these defences are the Gosbecks farmstead, the Sheepen industrial area and the Lexden burials. The Gosbecks site consists of a large, high-status farmstead, believed to be the home of the tribal chieftains of Camulodunon. Part of the Gosbecks complex is a large, square enclosure surrounded by a deep, wide ditch. This has been interpreted as part of a possible religious site, as during the Roman period a large temple was built in the middle of this enclosure. The Sheepen site, located around what is now St Helena School on the banks of the River Colne, was a large industrial and port zone, where extensive iron and leather working activity was carried out, as well as an important coin mint. Two coins minted at Sheepen, one found in Colchester in 1980 and another found at
Canterbury Canterbury (, ) is a City status in the United Kingdom, city and UNESCO World Heritage Site, in the county of Kent, England; it was a county borough until 1974. It lies on the River Stour, Kent, River Stour. The city has a mild oceanic climat ...
in 1978, depict boats, and are the only known depictions of sailing vessels from
Iron Age Britain The British Iron Age is a conventional name used in the archaeology of Great Britain, referring to the prehistoric and protohistoric phases of the Iron Age culture of the main island and the smaller islands, typically excluding prehistoric Ir ...
. Amphorae containing imported goods from the continent have been found at Sheepen, as have pieces of imported Samian pottery. Just inside the earthworks, at Lexden, are located the burial mounds of the rulers of Camulodunon, which contain large amounts of grave goods including imported Roman material from Europe; the largest of these mounds is the Lexden tumulus. The Lexden area around the mounds contains several Iron Age cremation burial groups, including one containing the "Mirror burial", with other burials located around the Camulodunon site. A large cluster of cremations from St. Clare road and Fitzwalter Road close to the Lexden Tumulus date to 50–10 BC. Aside from these main activity areas, the 1,000 ha area enclosed by the defensive earthworks and rivers mainly consisted of a network of droveways, hollow ways, pastures and fields associated with cattle herding. Scattered roundhouses and burials have been discovered amongst these droveways. The defences were designed to protect the high status and industrial areas as well as prevent cattle rustling of valuable herds. Camulodunon was surrounded by farmsteads like those at Abbotstone near
Colchester Zoo Colchester Zoo is a zoological garden situated near Colchester, England. The zoo opened in 1963 and celebrated its 60th anniversary on 2 June 2023. The zoo is home to many rare and endangered species, including big cats, primates and birds as w ...
and at Birch Quarry, many of which continued to exist on into the Roman period until at least the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD. Iron Age salt works (known as red hills) have been found in large numbers around the Essex coast, including several large concentrations located in the
salt marshes A salt marsh, saltmarsh or salting, also known as a coastal salt marsh or a tidal marsh, is a coastal ecosystem in the upper coastal intertidal zone between land and open Seawater, saltwater or brackish water that is regularly flooded by the ti ...
close to Camulodunon in the Colne Estuary, on the Roman River near
Fingringhoe Fingringhoe is a village and civil parish in the City of Colchester district of Essex, England. The centre of the village is classified as a conservation area, featuring a traditional village pond and red telephone box. The Roman River flows ...
, in Alresford Creek, on Mersea Island, the Pyefleet Channel, the
Blackwater River A blackwater river is a type of River#Classification, river with a slow-moving channel flowing through forested swamps or wetlands. Most major blackwater rivers are in the Amazon Basin and the Southern United States. The term is used in fluvial ...
and around the Tendring Peninsula. Two large groups existed at
Peldon Peldon is a village and civil parish in the Colchester (borough), Colchester borough of Essex, England. With Salcott, Virley, Great Wigborough and Little Wigborough, it forms part of the Winstred Hundred parish council. Nearby villages include ...
and Tolleshunt D'Arcy.Strachan, David (1998) Essex from the Air, Archaeology and history from aerial photographs. Published by Essex County Council () Camulodunon may have been an at the centre of the local trade in this important preservative. Addedomarus, a king of the Trinovantes tribe (originally centred at Braughing), is the first identifiable ruler of Camulodunon, known from his inscribed coins dating to around 25–10 BC. For a brief period around 10 BC Tasciovanus, a king of the
Catuvellauni The Catuvellauni (Common Brittonic: *''Catu-wellaunī'', "war-chiefs") were a Celtic tribe or state of southeastern Britain before the Roman conquest, attested by inscriptions into the 4th century. The fortunes of the Catuvellauni and thei ...
already issuing coins from Verlamion, also issued coins from Camulodunon, suggesting that the Trinovantes' capital had been conquered by the Catuvellauni, but he was soon forced to withdraw, perhaps as a result of Roman pressure – his later coins are no longer marked with the Latin '' REX'' (for "king"), but with the Brythonic ''RICON'' – and Addedomarus was restored. His son Dubnovellaunus succeeded him, but was soon supplanted by Tasciovanus' son Cunobelinus. Cunobelinus then succeeded his father at Verlamion, beginning the dominance of the Catuvellauni over the south-east. Cunobelinus was friendly with Rome, marking his coins with the word ''REX'' and classical motifs rather than the traditional Gallo-Belgic designs. Archaeology shows an increase in imported luxury goods, probably through the Sheepen site port of Camulodunon, during his reign. He was probably one of the British kings that
Strabo Strabo''Strabo'' (meaning "squinty", as in strabismus) was a term employed by the Romans for anyone whose eyes were distorted or deformed. The father of Pompey was called "Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo, Pompeius Strabo". A native of Sicily so clear-si ...
says sent embassies to
Augustus Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian (), was the founder of the Roman Empire, who reigned as the first Roman emperor from 27 BC until his death in A ...
. Strabo reports Rome's lucrative trade with Britain; the island's exports included grain, gold, silver, iron, hides, slaves and hunting dogs. Iron ingots, slave chains and storage vessels discovered at the Sheepen site appear to confirm this trade with the Empire.


Pre-Boudican Roman town


Claudian invasion

The
Catuvellauni The Catuvellauni (Common Brittonic: *''Catu-wellaunī'', "war-chiefs") were a Celtic tribe or state of southeastern Britain before the Roman conquest, attested by inscriptions into the 4th century. The fortunes of the Catuvellauni and thei ...
king Cunobelinus, ruling from his capital at Camulodunon, had subjugated a large area of southern and eastern Britain,Todd, Malcolm. (1981) Roman Britain; 55 BC – AD 400. Published by Fontana Paperbacks () and was called by the Roman historian
Suetonius Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (), commonly referred to as Suetonius ( ; – after AD 122), was a Roman historian who wrote during the early Imperial era of the Roman Empire. His most important surviving work is ''De vita Caesarum'', common ...
"King of the Britons". Under his rule Camulodunon had replaced Verlamion as the most important settlement in pre-Roman Britain. Around AD 40 he had fallen out with his son Adminius (acting as proxy ruler of the Cantiaci tribe in his father's name), who had fled to Rome for support. There he was received by the Emperor Gaius, who may have attempted an invasion of Britain to put Adminius on his father's throne. After Cunobelinus’ death (c. AD 40) his sons took power with the eldest, Togodumnus, ruling the Catuvellauni homeland around Verlamion, and Caratacus ruling from Camulodunon. Together these brothers began expanding their influence over other British tribes, including the Atrebates of the south coast. Verica, king of the Atrebates, which had branches on both sides of the
English Channel The English Channel, also known as the Channel, is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that separates Southern England from northern France. It links to the southern part of the North Sea by the Strait of Dover at its northeastern end. It is the busi ...
and had been friends of Rome since Caesar's conquest, appealed to the Emperor Claudius for aid. At the time of this appeal in AD 43 the newly enthroned Emperor Claudius was in need of a military victory in order to secure his shaky position with the
military A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. Militaries are typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with their members identifiable by a d ...
, and saw this call for help as the perfect pretext. Aulus Plautius led the four Roman legions across to Britain with Camulodunon being their main target, defeating and killing Togodumnus near the
Thames The River Thames ( ), known alternatively in parts as the River Isis, is a river that flows through southern England including London. At , it is the longest river entirely in England and the second-longest in the United Kingdom, after th ...
and then waiting for Claudius to cross the Channel. Claudius arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, leading the attack on Camulodunon. Caratacus fled the storming of the town, taking refuge with the Ordovices and
Silures The Silures ( , ) were a powerful and warlike tribe or tribal confederation of ancient Britain, occupying what is now south east Wales and perhaps some adjoining areas. They were bordered to the north by the Ordovices; to the east by the Do ...
tribes in
Wales Wales ( ) is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. It is bordered by the Irish Sea to the north and west, England to the England–Wales border, east, the Bristol Channel to the south, and the Celtic ...
and becoming a Welsh folk hero for his resistance to Rome. The Roman historian
Suetonius Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (), commonly referred to as Suetonius ( ; – after AD 122), was a Roman historian who wrote during the early Imperial era of the Roman Empire. His most important surviving work is ''De vita Caesarum'', common ...
and Claudius' triumphal arch state that after this battle the British kings who had been under Cunobelinus’ sons’ control surrendered without further bloodshed, Claudius accepting their submission in Camulodunon.


Roman fortress and early town

As the stronghold of a major tribe in the south-east, Camulodunum held strategic importance. A Roman legionary fortress or '' castrum'', the first permanent legionary fortress to be built in Britain, was established within the confines of Camulodunon (which was Latinised as ''Camulodunum'') following the successful invasion in AD 43, and was home to the Twentieth Legion. A smaller fort was built against the Iron Age earthworks close to the Gosbecks high-status farmstead, and was home to the Ala Primae Thracum ("First Wing of
Thracians The Thracians (; ; ) were an Indo-European languages, Indo-European speaking people who inhabited large parts of Southeast Europe in ancient history.. "The Thracians were an Indo-European people who occupied the area that today is shared betwee ...
", a cavalry regiment) and the Cohors Primae Vangionum ("First Cohort of
Vangiones The Vangiones appear first in history as an ancient Germanic peoples, Germanic tribe of unknown provenance. They threw in their lot with Ariovistus in his bid of 58 BC to invade Gaul through the Doubs river valley and lost to Julius Caesar in a ba ...
", a mixed cavalry-infantry unit from
Gaul Gaul () was a region of Western Europe first clearly described by the Roman people, Romans, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and parts of Switzerland, the Netherlands, Germany, and Northern Italy. It covered an area of . Ac ...
). retrieved 29 July 2014 The legionary fortress was larger than a standard ''castrum'', and included a large annex on its north-east side. It was protected by a large palisaded ditch and wall (Roman military '' Vallum'' and ''Fossa''), along with new earthwork ditch and rampart defences, built to supplement the existing native defences.Wilson, Roger J.A. (2002) A Guide to the Roman Remains in Britain (Fourth Edition). Published by Constable. ()Crummy, Philip (1992) Colchester Archaeological Report 6: Excavations at Culver Street, the Gilberd School, and other sites in Colchester 1971–85. Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust ()Crummy, Philip (1984) Colchester Archaeological Report 3: Excavations at Lion Walk, Balkerne Lane, and Middleborough, Colchester, Essex. Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust () One of these was around the Sheepen site, which became the main Roman port for the fortress and later for the town, with another military river port at
Fingringhoe Fingringhoe is a village and civil parish in the City of Colchester district of Essex, England. The centre of the village is classified as a conservation area, featuring a traditional village pond and red telephone box. The Roman River flows ...
. Archaeological excavations in 2008–2009 revealed that the Roman Sheepen site was more extensive than previously thought, and had a network of gravelled roads and timber-buildings, some of which contained timber-lined basements. A wooden paddle for a coracle was found preserved at the site. The fortress had two main metalled roads, a north–south '' via principalis'' and an east–west '' via praetoria'', as well as a ''via sagularis'' around the inside of the defensive walls. Along the roads leading out of the fortress settlements known as vici developed, home to native Britons who served the Roman garrison. The interior of the fortress consisted of long barrack blocks able to hold groups of eighty soldiers, known as a
Century A century is a period of 100 years or 10 decades. Centuries are numbered ordinally in English and many other languages. The word ''century'' comes from the Latin ''centum'', meaning ''one hundred''. ''Century'' is sometimes abbreviated as c. ...
, with a large room for a centurion at one end of each block. Larger buildings for military Tribunes have been excavated in the centre of the fort The walls of the military buildings were built on mortared plinths called ''opus caementicium'', with wooden and daub walls faced with keyed plaster. Roman military equipment and weapons have been found from the fortress, including swords, armour and harness fittings. After the legion was withdrawn in c. AD 49, the legionary defences were dismantled and the fortress converted into a town, with many of the barrack blocks converted into housing. Its official name became '' Colonia Victricensis'', with discharged Roman soldiers making up the population; a bronze military '' diplomata'' (document formalising a soldier's retirement, citizen rights and land rights) for a legionary soldier called ''Saturninus'' has been found at the Sheepen site. As a colonia (the only one in Britain at the time) its citizens held equal rights to Romans, and it was the principal city of Roman Britain.
Tacitus Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historians by modern scholars. Tacitus’ two major historical works, ''Annals'' ( ...
wrote that the town was "a strong ''colonia'' of ex-soldiers established on conquered territory, to provide a protection against rebels and a centre for instructing the provincials in the procedures of the law". The Temple of Claudius, the largest classical style temple in Britain, was built there in the 50s and was dedicated to Emperor Claudius on his death in 54. "Iron-Age and Roman Colchester", ''A History of the County of Essex: Volume 9: The Borough of Colchester (1994): 2–18'', Janet Cooper, C R Elrington (Editors), A P Baggs, Beryl Board, Philip Crummy, Claude Dove, Shirley Durgan, N R Goose, R B Pugh, Pamela Studd, C C Thornton.. British History Online. Web. 01 June 2014
/ref> The podium, or foundation of the temple, was incorporated into the Norman castle, and represents "the earliest substantial stone building of Roman date visible in the country". A monumental arch was built from tufa and Purbeck Marble at the western gate out of the town. Tombs lined the roads out of the town, with several belonging to military veterans giving insights into the military units stationed in Britain during the post-Conquest period, such as: *The famous tomb of the
Thracian The Thracians (; ; ) were an Indo-European speaking people who inhabited large parts of Southeast Europe in ancient history.. "The Thracians were an Indo-European people who occupied the area that today is shared between north-eastern Greece, ...
cavalryman Longinus Sdapeze, depicting a Thracian horseman on horseback with full armour, in triumph over a cowering Briton. It reads: ::::LONGINVS.SDAPEZE ::::MATYCI.F.DVPLICARIVS.ALA.PRIMA.TRACVM.PAGO ::::SARDICA.ANNO.XL.AEROR.XV ::::HEREDES.EXS.TESTAM.F.C. ::::H S E ::(Translated: Longinus Sdapeze, son of Matycus, Duplicarius of Ala Primae Thracum, from the country district of Sardica, who lived for forty years, with fifteen years paid service. His heirs set this up as stipulated in his will. He lies here.) *The tomb of the centurion Marcus Favonius Facilis from Rome, depicting him in full military dress, is one of the finest examples, and reads: ::::M.FAVONI.M.F.POL.FACI ::::LIS.C.LEG.XX.VERECVND ::::VS.ET.NOVCIVS.LIB.POSVERVNT H S E ::(Translated: For Marcus Favonius Facilis, son of Marcus, of the Pollentian voting tribe, centurion of the Twentieth Legion, Verecundus and Noucius his freedmen have placed his memorial He lies here.) *The tomb of an auxiliary from
Gaul Gaul () was a region of Western Europe first clearly described by the Roman people, Romans, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and parts of Switzerland, the Netherlands, Germany, and Northern Italy. It covered an area of . Ac ...
: ::::D M AR... RE... VAL... COH I VA... QVI M... EX AERE COLLATO ::(Translated: To the spirits of the departed and to Ar ..Re ..Val ..of the First Cohort of Vangiones, who ..former collector of taxes.) *The tomb of another experienced centurion from
Anatolia Anatolia (), also known as Asia Minor, is a peninsula in West Asia that makes up the majority of the land area of Turkey. It is the westernmost protrusion of Asia and is geographically bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Aegean ...
: ::::...LEG I (or II) ADIVTRICIS... ...AE BIS C ... ... BIS C LEG III AVG ... C LEG XX VAL VICTORIVNDVS NICAEA IN BITHYNIA MILITAVIT ANN ... VIXIT ANN ... ... ::(Translated: ..of Legio Primae Adiutrix ..twice centurion ..twice centurion of Legio Tertiae Augusta ..centurion of Legio Vicesimae Valeria, Victoriundus, from
Nicaea Nicaea (also spelled Nicæa or Nicea, ; ), also known as Nikaia (, Attic: , Koine: ), was an ancient Greek city in the north-western Anatolian region of Bithynia. It was the site of the First and Second Councils of Nicaea (the first and seve ...
in Bithynia, with ..years military service who lived for ..years .. By 60–61 the population may have been as high as 30,000.


Iceni revolt

The city was the capital of the Roman province of
Britannia The image of Britannia () is the national personification of United Kingdom, Britain as a helmeted female warrior holding a trident and shield. An image first used by the Romans in classical antiquity, the Latin was the name variously appli ...
, and its temple (the only classical-style temple in Britain) was the centre of the
Imperial Cult An imperial cult is a form of state religion in which an emperor or a dynasty of emperors (or rulers of another title) are worshipped as demigods or deities. "Cult (religious practice), Cult" here is used to mean "worship", not in the modern pejor ...
in the province. The Roman philosopher Seneca mentioned the temple when he mocked the province for its piety towards the Deified Claudius. The colonia was also initially home to the provincial Procurator of Britain. Aside from the Roman population, the city and surrounding territorium was also home to a large native population. Examples of cooperation between the two groups include the Romano-British Stanway Burials mounds and the warrior graves of native elites from the 50s. These graves represent members of the native aristocracy who have been Romanised. However tensions arose in 60/61 when the Roman authorities used the death of Prasutagus as a pretext for seizing the Iceni client state from his widow
Boudica Boudica or Boudicca (, from Brittonic languages, Brythonic * 'victory, win' + * 'having' suffix, i.e. 'Victorious Woman', known in Latin chronicles as Boadicea or Boudicea, and in Welsh language, Welsh as , ) was a queen of the Iceni, ancient ...
. The Iceni rebels were joined by the Trinovantes around Colonia Victricensis, who held several grudges against the Roman population of the town. These included the seizure of land for the colonia's veteran population, the use of labour to build the Temple of Claudius, and the sudden recall of loans given to the local elites by leading Romans (including Seneca and the Emperor), which had been needed to allow the locals to qualify for a position on the city council.Tacitus (1876), XIV:31. The Procurator Catus Decianus was especially despised. Tacitus recorded that certain ominous portents occurred in the town prior to the rebellion: ::" ..he statue of
Victory The term victory (from ) originally applied to warfare, and denotes success achieved in personal duel, combat, after military operations in general or, by extension, in any competition. Success in a military campaign constitutes a strategic vi ...
fell down, its back turned as though in retreat from the enemy. Women roused into frenzy chanted of approaching destruction, and declared that the cries of the barbarians had been heard in the council-chamber, that the theatre had re-echoed with shrieks, that a reflection of the ''colonia'', overthrown, had been seen in the Thames estuary. The sea appeared blood-red, and spectres of human corpses were left behind as the tide went out." As the symbol of Roman rule in Britain the city was the first target of the rebels, with its Temple seen in British eyes as the ''arx aeternae dominationis'' ("stronghold of everlasting domination") according to Tacitus. He wrote that it was undefended by fortifications when it was attacked with a garrison of only 200 members of the procurator's guard. He wrote of a last stand at the Temple of Claudius: :"In the attack everything was broken down and burnt. The temple where the soldiers had congregated was besieged for two days and then sacked.". The rebels destroyed the city and slaughtered its population. Archaeologists have found layers of ash in the site of the city, suggesting that Boudica ordered her rebel army to burn the city to the ground. A relief army consisting of the Legio IX Hispana led by Quintus Petillius Cerialis attempted to rescue the besieged citizens, but was destroyed outside of the town. After the Romans under governor Gaius Suetonius Paullinus finally defeated the uprising, the Procurator of the province moved his seat to the newly established commercial settlement of
Londinium Londinium, also known as Roman London, was the capital of Roman Britain during most of the period of Roman rule. Most twenty-first century historians think that it was originally a settlement established shortly after the Roman conquest of Brit ...
(
London London is the Capital city, capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of both England and the United Kingdom, with a population of in . London metropolitan area, Its wider metropolitan area is the largest in Wester ...
).


Boudican destruction layer

The destruction of the early town by the rebels has left a thick layer of ash, destroyed buildings and smashed pottery and glasswork across the town centre and at the Sheepen river port site outside the NW corner of the town. The destruction layer, also found at Verulamium ( St Albans) and
Londinium Londinium, also known as Roman London, was the capital of Roman Britain during most of the period of Roman rule. Most twenty-first century historians think that it was originally a settlement established shortly after the Roman conquest of Brit ...
(
London London is the Capital city, capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of both England and the United Kingdom, with a population of in . London metropolitan area, Its wider metropolitan area is the largest in Wester ...
), is famous for the charred preservation of artefacts and furniture, including a samian store, a glass store, beds and mattresses, wall plaster, tessellated floors, a few human bones with wounds and even dates and plums. During excavations in 2014 at Williams and Griffin on the High Street a collection of gold and silver jewellery was discovered buried in the floor of a Roman building destroyed during the revolt. Known as the " Fenwick Treasure", it appears to have been buried just prior to the building's destruction by a victim of the Boudican attack. The layer is important to
historians A historian is a person who studies and writes about the past and is regarded as an authority on it. Historians are concerned with the continuous, methodical narrative and research of past events as relating to the human species; as well as the ...
as it is one of the first archaeological contexts in Britain that can be given a definitive date, as well as to
archaeologists Archaeology or archeology is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of Artifact (archaeology), artifacts, architecture, biofact (archaeology), biofacts or ecofacts, ...
as it provides a snapshot of artifacts from 60, allowing typologies of finds to be tied into a historical timeline, for example in Samian production. The rubble from the destruction was landscaped during the rebuilding of the town that took place in the years after the revolt.


''Colonia Victricensis'' in the second and third centuries

Following the destruction of the Colonia and Suetonius Paulinus’ crushing of the revolt the town was rebuilt on a larger scale and flourished, growing larger in size than its pre-Boudican levels (to 108 acres/45 ha) despite its loss of status to
Londinium Londinium, also known as Roman London, was the capital of Roman Britain during most of the period of Roman rule. Most twenty-first century historians think that it was originally a settlement established shortly after the Roman conquest of Brit ...
, reaching its peak in the Second and 3rd centuries. The town's official name was ''Colonia Claudia Victricensis'' (City of Claudius’ Victory), but it was known colloquially by contemporaries (such as on the monument of Gnaeus Munatius Aurelius Bassus in Rome – ''see below'') as ''Camulodunum'' or simply ''Colonia''. The colonia became a large industrial centre, and was the largest, and for a short time the only, place in the province of Britannia where samian ware was produced, along with glasswork and metalwork, and a coin mint. Roman brick making and wine growing also took place in the area. Colonia Victricensis contained many large townhouses, with dozens of mosaics and tessellated pavements found, along with hypocausts and sophisticated waterpipes and drains. The colonia is mentioned by name several times by contemporaries, including in Pliny's
Natural History Natural history is a domain of inquiry involving organisms, including animals, fungi, and plants, in their natural environment, leaning more towards observational than experimental methods of study. A person who studies natural history is cal ...
, Ptolemy's Geography, Tacitus'
Annales Annals are a concise form of historical writing which record events chronologically, year by year. The equivalent word in Latin and French is ''annales'', which is used untranslated in English in various contexts. List of works with titles contai ...
, The Antonine Itinerary and the
Ravenna Cosmography The ''Ravenna Cosmography'' (,  "The Cosmography of the Unknown Ravennese") is a work describing the Ecumene, known world from India to Ireland, compiled by an anonymous cleric in Ravenna around 700 AD. It consists of five books describing ...
. The 2nd century tomb inscription for Gn. Munatius Bassus in Rome, which describes the name of the town and its Roman citizenship, reads: :::GN.MVNATIVS.MF.PAL :::AVRELIVS.BASSVS :::PROCAVG :::PRAEF.FABR.PRAEF.COH.III :::SAGITTARIORVM.PRAEF.COH.ITERVM.II :::ASTVRVM.CENSITOR.CIVIVM :::ROMANORVM.COLONIAE.VICTRI :::CENSIS.QVAE.EST.IN.BRITTANNIA :::CAMALODVNI.CVRATOR :::VIAE.NOMENTANAE.PATRONVS.EIVSDEM :::MVNICIPI.FLAMEN.PERPETVS :::DVVM.VIR.ALI.POTESTATE :::AEDILIS.DICTATOR.IIII. :(Translated: Gnaeus Munatius Aurelius Bassus, son of Marcus of the Palatine Tribe, Procurator of the Emperor, Prefect of the Armourers, Prefect of the Third Cohort of Archers, Prefect again of the Second Cohort of
Asturians Asturians () are a Romance ethnic group native to the autonomous community of Asturias, in the North-West of the Iberian Peninsula. Culture and society Heritage The Asturians have Celtic ( Astures) and Latin cultural origins, most notably f ...
, Census Officer of the Roman Citizens of Colonia Victricensis, which is in Britain at Camulodunum, Overseer of the Nomentum Road, Patron again of the same municipality,
Priest A priest is a religious leader authorized to perform the sacred rituals of a religion, especially as a mediatory agent between humans and one or more deity, deities. They also have the authority or power to administer religious rites; in parti ...
for life,
Aedile Aedile ( , , from , "temple edifice") was an elected office of the Roman Republic. Based in Rome, the aediles were responsible for maintenance of public buildings () and regulation of public festivals. They also had powers to enforce public orde ...
with magisterial power, Dictator four times.)


Status

The city was one of the few Roman settlements in Britain designated as a ''Colonia'' rather than a '' Municipia'', meaning that in legal terms it was an extension of the city of Rome, not a provincial town. Its inhabitants therefore had
Roman citizen Citizenship in ancient Rome () was a privileged political and legal status afforded to free individuals with respect to laws, property, and governance. Citizenship in ancient Rome was complex and based upon many different laws, traditions, and cu ...
ship. Of the two provincial administrators the senatorial military
governor A governor is an politician, administrative leader and head of a polity or Region#Political regions, political region, in some cases, such as governor-general, governors-general, as the head of a state's official representative. Depending on the ...
was always located in areas of conflict, whilst the civilian Procurator's office had moved from Camulodunum to the new port of Londinium sometime around the Boudican Revolt. However the Colonia did retain the Imperial cult centre and priesthood at the Temple of Claudius. The colonia was at the centre of a large territorium containing many villa sites, including an important cluster around the Colne estuary.


Walls

Following the rebuilding of the town after 60/1, new walls and a large defensive ditch were built around the colonia (the first town walls in Britain, predating other such walls in the province by at least 150 years). They were completed by 80, twenty years after the revolt. They were built with two external faces of alternating layers of
tile Tiles are usually thin, square or rectangular coverings manufactured from hard-wearing material such as ceramic, Rock (geology), stone, metal, baked clay, or even glass. They are generally fixed in place in an array to cover roofs, floors, wal ...
and septaria mudstone containing a core of septaria boulders, with a 10 ft wide and 4 ft deep foundation trench, the whole structure taking up 45,000 cubic metres of stone, tile and mortar. They were 2,800m long and 2.4m thick, and survive up to a height of over 6m in the 21st century. Later, in around 175–200 a large earth bank was built up against the inner face of the walls. The walls had between 12 and 24 towers and six large gates. The Balkerne Gate, in the centre of the Western section of the walls, was the main gate out of the town. It has a large fortified barbican that still stands as Britain's largest Roman gateway, which incorporated the earlier monumental arch built before the Iceni rebellion and was flanked by two possible temples, one of which may have contained the
Venus Venus is the second planet from the Sun. It is often called Earth's "twin" or "sister" planet for having almost the same size and mass, and the closest orbit to Earth's. While both are rocky planets, Venus has an atmosphere much thicker ...
statuette found during the 1973–76 excavations. Skulls showing signs of
decapitation Decapitation is the total separation of the head from the body. Such an injury is invariably fatal to humans and all vertebrate animals, since it deprives the brain of oxygenated blood by way of severing through the jugular vein and common c ...
were found in the town ditch in front of the gate, interpreted as executions on public display. The North wall contained two gates, the modern North Gate and Duncan's Gate. The East wall had the modern East Gate, and the Southern wall had the modern South Gate and Head Gate. Drains were constructed in the wall to allow sewerage out of the colonia.


Streets

The Cardo maximus, the main north–south street, ran between North Gate and Head Gate, whilst the Decumanus Maximus, the main east–west street, ran between Balkerne Gate and East Gate, and have their origins in the Legionary fortresses two main axial streets. They were well paved, had drainage channels and were fronted with houses and shops. Many included footways, a feature that is rare in other Roman British towns. The rest of the colonia was gridded into around forty blocks known as insula, with paved streets and colonnaded paths between. As well as a system of local roads leading to settlements around the colony, Camulodunum was linked to the rest of the Province by several major roads, including Stane Street, Camlet Way, Pye Road and the Via Devana.


Public buildings

Within the town walls was located the Temple of Claudius in its large temple precinct with a monumental columned arcade. retrieved 20 July 2014 Parts of the temple precinct wall are still visible to the NW of the present castle, jutting out from beneath the Norman bailey rampart. The front of the precinct wall consisted of a large columned arcade screen extending the full width of the frontage. At the centre of this arcade stood the entranceway to the temple precinct, which took the form of a tufa-faced monumental arch that at 8 m wide was about 2 m wider than the one at the Eastern entrance to the town, which had been incorporated into Balkerne Gate. To the west of the temple on the modern Maidenburgh Street was a 3,000 seat capacity Roman theatre, which now has the Norman chapel of St Helena built into the corner of it, currently open to public viewing. Opposite the Temple, on the south side of the Decumanus Maximus, the remains of a possible
Basilica In Ancient Roman architecture, a basilica (Greek Basiliké) was a large public building with multiple functions that was typically built alongside the town's forum. The basilica was in the Latin West equivalent to a stoa in the Greek Eas ...
have been identified. At least seven Romano-Celtic temples have been identified at Camulodunum, with the largest located at the Gosbecks area to the south of the town, built within the site of a former Iron-Age enclosure. A large portico with an eastern entrance ran all the way around the outside of the site, with a solid outer wall, a row of columns down the centre of the portico and a second row of columns around the inner side. In all there were about 260 columns placed 2 m apart, and reaching a height of at least 5 m. The portico ran around the outside of a deep, Iron-Age enclosure ditch, which separated the portico from the central space in the middle of the site. This central space contained a large Romano-Celtic temple, which stood off-centre, leading to suggestions that something else stood at the heart of the religious complex. Next to the Gosbecks temple stood a second 5,000 seat theatre, Britain's largest at 82 m in diameter. A group of four Romano-Celtic temples stood at the Sheepen industrial site, one of which was dedicated to
Jupiter Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the List of Solar System objects by size, largest in the Solar System. It is a gas giant with a Jupiter mass, mass more than 2.5 times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined a ...
. ''Temple I'' at the Sheepen site was found to be enclosed by a large, buttressed precinct wall during excavations in 1935 and 2014. In 2005, the only known Roman circus in Britain was discovered on the southern outskirts of the colonia. It is about 450 metres long, with eight starting-gates, and it was built in the early 2nd century. It could accommodate at least 8,000 spectators and maybe up to as many as double that. The structure's gates are being opened to the public. Several temples and religious monuments in and around the colonia have evidence for the deity honoured by them: * A statue of
Venus Venus is the second planet from the Sun. It is often called Earth's "twin" or "sister" planet for having almost the same size and mass, and the closest orbit to Earth's. While both are rocky planets, Venus has an atmosphere much thicker ...
was found in the vicinity of the temple outside of the Balkerne Gate. * A statue of Mercury was found at the site of the Gosbecks temple. *The Temple at the Colchester Royal Grammar School has several plaques dedicated to Silvanus, including: ::::DEO SILVANO CALLIRIO D CINTVSMVS AERARIVS VSLM ::(Translated: To the god Silvanus Callirius, Decimus Cintusmus, coppersmith, willingly and deservedly fulfilled his vow.) ::::DEO SILVANO HERMES VSLM ::(Translated: To the god Silvanus, Hermes willingly and deservedly fulfilled his vow.) * The largest of the four temples at the Sheepen site has a plaque dedicated to
Jupiter Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the List of Solar System objects by size, largest in the Solar System. It is a gas giant with a Jupiter mass, mass more than 2.5 times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined a ...
: ::::P.ORANIVS ::::FACILLIS.IOVI ::::SIGILLUM.EX.TESTA ::(Translated: Publius Oranius Facilis gave a statue to Jove under the terms of his will) * An altar to the SW of the town dedicated to the Suleviae: ::::MATRIBVS SVLEVIS SIMILIS ATTI F CI CANT VSLM ::(Translated: To the Sulevi mothers, Similis the son of Attius, of the Civitas Cantiacorum, willingly and deservedly fulfills his vow.) * A Bronze plaque dedicated sometime between 222 and 235 CE by a Syrian to
Mars Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun. It is also known as the "Red Planet", because of its orange-red appearance. Mars is a desert-like rocky planet with a tenuous carbon dioxide () atmosphere. At the average surface level the atmosph ...
and the Emperor Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Severus, himself a Syrian: ::::DEO MARTI MEDOCIO CAMPESIVM ET VICTORIE ALEXANDRI PII FELICIS AVGVSTI NOSI DONVM LOSSIO VEDA DE SVO POSVIT NEPOS VEPOGENI CALEDO ::(Translated: To the god of the battlefields Mars Medocius, and to the victory of mperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius SeverusAlexander Pius Felix Augustus, Lossius Veda the grandson of Vepogenus Caledos, placed hisoffering out of his own unds) * A monument, built by a local artisan Maronius, was dedicated to the "Numinibus Augusti" ( Spirits of the Emperor) and Mercury: ::::NVMINIB AVG ET MERCV DEO ANDESCOCI VOVCO IMILCO AESVRILINI LIBERTVS ARAM OPERE MARONIO D S D ::(Translated: To the Spirits of the Emperor and the God Mercury, Andescoci Vouco Imilco Aesurilini, freedman, edicatesthis altar, the work of Maronius, donated out of his own unds) Marble from many of these public structures has been found, including Purbeck Marble and '' giallo antico'' (a rare yellow marble from
Tunisia Tunisia, officially the Republic of Tunisia, is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It is bordered by Algeria to the west and southwest, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Tunisia also shares m ...
), as well as statutes, inscriptions and plaques. Several other public buildings have been postulated for which evidence is so far lacking, for example: * Depictions on pottery, glasswork, and wall plaster from the colonia of gladiators has been suggested as evidence that the town could have possessed an
amphitheatre An amphitheatre (American English, U.S. English: amphitheater) is an open-air venue used for entertainment, performances, and sports. The term derives from the ancient Greek ('), from ('), meaning "on both sides" or "around" and ('), meani ...
. * A mound called "The Mount", which formerly stood in the Abbey grounds, was once thought to have been part of a Roman burial mound, although after the discovery of the Roman Circus just to the south of where it once stood, there have been suggestions by Colchester Archaeological Trust that it could have been the remnants of an amphitheatre.


Water management

The town's streets and walls feature many brick built drains, including several large examples in Castle Park and near St Botolph's Priory. As well as drains the colonia also possessed pipes for bringing pressurised water into the settlement. At the excavations at Balkerne Lane four lines of hollow wooden pipes, joined with iron collars were found bringing water from nearby springs, as well as evidence of a possible raised wooden aqueduct which may have been briefly in existence next to Balkerne Gate. Further pipes have been discovered across the town. The water would have been pressurised in reservoirs; it has been argued by archaeologist Philip Crummy that the pipes would have been fed by a ''castellum divisiorum'', a water tower with multiple outlets, and that some form of aqueduct or water-lifting wheel would have been needed to bring water from springs west of the town to the pipes found at Balkerne Lane. Within the town, a complicated system of chambers, water pipes and slots for possible water-wheels was found in Castle Park that were once described as a Mithraeum but that has now been reinterpreted as a reservoir system. A large overflow drain ran from the structure down to a culvert near Duncan's Gate where the excess water exited the town into the River Colne. Timber framed wells have also been discovered, and there are at least nine springs located within the walls of Camulodunum.Crummy, Nina; Crummy, Philip; and Crossan, Carl (1993) Colchester Archaeological Report 9: Excavations of Roman and later cemeteries, churches and monastic sites in Colchester, 1971–88. Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust () Private baths have been found at some sites, and public baths were discovered in summer 2019.


Houses

Many houses have been found in the colonia during archaeological excavations. Stone-founded buildings largely replaced timber ones in the course of the 2nd century, while average house size tended to increase in size up to a peak at around 250. They have painted plaster walls and tiled roofs, many with tessellated mosaic floors, hypocaust systems, private baths and courtyards. Latrine pits, with examples well over a metre deep, have been discovered next to some of the houses. Large houses were also found in the extramural suburbs outside of the town walls, with the Middleborough House beneath the old Cattle Market being the largest, containing many rooms, mosaics and basements. The Beryfield mosaic (of 180/200) from the SE corner of the colonia is the best preserved of the more than 50 mosaics found in the town.


Cemeteries

In keeping with Roman burial customs the cemeteries for adults of the colonia in the First, Second and Third centuries are all located outside of the walls along the main roads out of the town, with infants buried within the walls. The cemeteries, some of which are walled, initially contained cremation burials, with ashes placed within jars and urns depicting human faces or glass vessels; these jars were sometimes buried in "boxes" made from ceramic tiles and hypocaust flue blocks to protect the vessel.Toynbee, J.M.C. (1996) Death and Burial in the Roman World. Published by Thames and Hudson. () Some cremation pots have graffiti on them, with PVERORVA ("remains of the boys") scratched on one, as do some glass vessels, such as one found with CN.A.ING.A.V.M. scratched on it (presumably the initials of the interred ashes). Later (post-c. 260) burials are inhumations, some in lead coffins decorated with patterns and images of scallop shells, and some with wooden superstructures above and around them. Examples of ''bustum'' burials (funerary pyre that is then covered with a mound) have been found, which are rare outside of Italy. Elaborate grave goods accompanied some of the burials. Many fragments of carved tombstones have been found in the cemeteries outside of the town, with several being near complete such as the "Colchester Sphinx". Some of the inscriptions on the tombs are almost fully intact, including: * The tomb of a Roman Eques: ::::...OS... ... MACRI... ... VS EQ R VIX AN XX V FRONTINA CONIVNX ET FLOR COGITATVS ET FLOR FIDELIS FECERVNT ::(Translated: ..Macri us lors, a knight of Rome, who lived for twenty-five years, Frontina his wife, with Florus Cogitatus and Florus Fidelis, have made his memorial) * The tomb of a young man: ::::D M IN HOC TVMVLO TEGVNTVR OSSA VENERABILIS IVVENIS ... CVNCTI MVCIANVM ... ERVNT SER ... ... VN ... ::(Translated: To the spirits of the departed, within this mound are being protected the bones of the honourable young man ..Cunctius Muciana ..they are overthrowing slavery .. Other funerary monuments include the large tower-like ossuary containing the remains of cremated individuals and
birds of prey Birds of prey or predatory birds, also known as (although not the same as) raptors, are hypercarnivorous bird species that actively predation, hunt and feed on other vertebrates (mainly mammals, reptiles and smaller birds). In addition to speed ...
, which was found at the junction between the road to London and the road to Gosbecks beneath the modern Colchester Royal Grammar School.


Industry and economy


Pottery production

Camulodunum was a centre for pottery production, peaking at around 200, and over 40 kilns have been in the town, including those found in the northern suburbs of the colonia around Middleborough and a large group at Warren Fields and Oak Drive on the southern outskirts of the Sheepen site. Many of the kilns are of the oval "Colchester type", whilst tile kilns have larger rectangular chambers. Camulodunum produced many types of pottery, including decorated Samian pottery, mortaria, buff wares, single-handled ring-necked flagons,Bédoyère, Guy de la (2000) Roman Pottery in Britain. Published by Shire Publishing LTD () and, until c. 250, colour-coated wares. In the late 1st century amphorae, called "Camulodunum Carrots" for their shape and colour, were made in the colonia, and are found in thin numbers across Britain. The Samian industry, copying the East Gaullish style, was active for a time in Camulodunum from 160 to about 200, with the names of several individual Samian potters identified as working in the colonia. Over 400 fragments of Samian moulds for producing the decorated pottery have been uncovered in the town,Bédoyère, Guy de la (1988) Samian Ware in Britain. Published by Shire Publications LTD. () including 37 complete examples. A well-preserved Samian kiln was excavated by archaeologist M.R. Hull near Middleborough, just outside North Gate. It was 8 ft wide, with a 5m flue under a large circular kiln chamber, and had a complex system of ceramic pipes and tubes for regulating the oxidisation of the pottery to produce its distinctive red colour. Several of the potters operating in Camulodunum in the First, Second and Third centuries are identified as immigrants from the Rhine Valley and East Gaul, including the Samian potter ''Minuso'' from
Trier Trier ( , ; ), formerly and traditionally known in English as Trèves ( , ) and Triers (see also Names of Trier in different languages, names in other languages), is a city on the banks of the Moselle (river), Moselle in Germany. It lies in a v ...
who also operated in other British towns, ''Miccio'', the mortaria potter ''G. Attius Marinus'' and several men called ''Sextus Valerius''. Pottery made in Camulodunum can be found across the
East of England East is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from west and is the direction from which the Sunrise, Sun rises on the Earth. Etymology As in other languages, the word is formed from the fact ...
, and as far away as Eboracum. One of the most famous examples of locally made pottery is the " Colchester Vase" (c. 200), which depicts combat between gladiators called Memnon and Valentinus.


Other activities

As well as pottery, ceramics produced in Camulodunum also include a large tile industry, oil lamps and figurines. The colonia was also a major centre of glass production, and glass moulds (including a complete example) have been discovered in the town.Allen, Denise (1998) Roman Glass in Britain. Published by Shire Archaeology LTD. () Glass was produced throughout the Roman period of Camulodunum, including in the late 4th century, and glass-making waste was discovered at Culver Street from the mid-1st century. Bone carving for ornamentation, metal working and jewellery making were also practiced, and a coin mint operated in the colonia. Archaeological excavations suggest that the period between 150 and 250 saw the largest number of active workshops in the colonia. The town was at the centre of a largely rural economy, with archaeological evidence of agricultural buildings in the colonia including the large buttressed tower granary found in the Southern part of the town, in use for much of the 2nd century, with a nearby corn-drying oven. Many ovens have been located in excavations around the town. A system of
watermill A watermill or water mill is a mill that uses hydropower. It is a structure that uses a water wheel or water turbine to drive a mechanical process such as mill (grinding), milling (grinding), rolling, or hammering. Such processes are needed in ...
s appears to have operated along Salary Brook near Ardleigh to the north of the settlement, and other watermills may have operated on the Colne at the modern site of Middle Mill in Castle Park.
Oysters Oyster is the common name for a number of different families of Seawater, salt-water bivalve molluscs that live in Marine (ocean), marine or Brackish water, brackish habitats. In some species, the valves are highly Calcification, calcified, a ...
from the Colne Estuary and Mersea Island have been an important food source throughout much of Colchester's history, and large dumps (some 0.5m thick) of oyster shells have been found at Balkerne Hill from the Roman period, along with
mussels Mussel () is the common name used for members of several families of bivalve molluscs, from saltwater and freshwater habitats. These groups have in common a shell whose outline is elongated and asymmetrical compared with other edible clams, whic ...
, whelks, cockles, carpet shells, winkle and scallop; fish imported from the River Colne and coast are represented by
herring Herring are various species of forage fish, belonging to the Order (biology), order Clupeiformes. Herring often move in large Shoaling and schooling, schools around fishing banks and near the coast, found particularly in shallow, temperate wate ...
, plaice,
flounder Flounders are a group of flatfish species. They are demersal fish, found at the bottom of oceans around the world; some species will also enter estuary, estuaries. Taxonomy The name "flounder" is used for several only distantly related speci ...
, eel, smelt,
cod Cod (: cod) is the common name for the demersal fish genus ''Gadus'', belonging to the family (biology), family Gadidae. Cod is also used as part of the common name for a number of other fish species, and one species that belongs to genus ''Gad ...
, haddock, gurnard, mullet, dragonet, dab, and sole. As well as the Sheepen river port,
Roman road Roman roads ( ; singular: ; meaning "Roman way") were physical infrastructure vital to the maintenance and development of the Roman state, built from about 300 BC through the expansion and consolidation of the Roman Republic and the Roman Em ...
s lead to Mistley on the
Essex Essex ( ) is a Ceremonial counties of England, ceremonial county in the East of England, and one of the home counties. It is bordered by Cambridgeshire and Suffolk to the north, the North Sea to the east, Kent across the Thames Estuary to the ...
bank of the River Stour and to a cluster of Roman-era buildings at West Mersea, both of which may also have possessed ports for the colonia. Imports of dates, wine (including Falernian wine), olive oil, jet,
marble Marble is a metamorphic rock consisting of carbonate minerals (most commonly calcite (CaCO3) or Dolomite (mineral), dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) that have recrystallized under the influence of heat and pressure. It has a crystalline texture, and is ty ...
and other goods from across the Roman Empire have been found in Colchester, including a locally made amphora with an inscription suggesting that it held North African palm-tree fruit products. The trade in salt from local Red Hills also appears to have continued on from the Iron Age in the Roman period, but with more sophisticated evaporation kilns.Fawn, A.J.; Evans, K.A.; McMaster, I.;Davies, G.M.R. (1990) The Red Hills of Essex. Published by Colchester Archaeological Group. () Small numbers of tiles were imported from Eccles in
Kent Kent is a Ceremonial counties of England, ceremonial county in South East England. It is bordered by Essex across the Thames Estuary to the north, the Strait of Dover to the south-east, East Sussex to the south-west, Surrey to the west, and Gr ...
by Roman settlements in South-East Britain, including Camulodunum, for a brief time in the First Century, as was Kentish Ragstone for building.


Late Roman town

The late 3rd century and 4th centuries saw a series of crises in the Empire, including breakaway of the Gallic Empire (of which Britain was a part), and raids by
Saxon The Saxons, sometimes called the Old Saxons or Continental Saxons, were a Germanic people of early medieval "Old" Saxony () which became a Carolingian " stem duchy" in 804, in what is now northern Germany. Many of their neighbours were, like th ...
pirates. Such events led to creation of the Saxon Shore forts along the East coast of Britain. The fort at Othona overlooking the confluence of the Blackwater and Colne estuaries, and two more at the mouth of the River Colne were built to protect the town. Balkerne Gate and Duncan's Gate were blocked up in this period, with the latter showing signs of attack. The extramural suburbs outside Balkerne Gate had gone by 300 and were replaced by cultivation beds. Re-cutting of the town ditch in front of the newly blocked Balkerne Gate in 275–300 involved destroying the water pipes which entered the colonia through the gate. A small portal in the gateway may have been opened up later.Crummy, Philip (1987) The Coins as Dating Evidence. In Crummy, N. (ed.) Colchester Archaeological Report 4: The Coins from Excavations in Colchester 1971-9. Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust The town ditch began to silt up from c. 400 onwards. The troubles of the late 3rd century saw the burial of several coin hoards around the town, including a hoard of 1,247 coins found in a grey-ware pot at Hyderabad Barracks. As with many towns in the Empire, the colonia shrunk in size in the 4th century but continued to function as an important town.Faulkner, Neil. (1994) Late Roman Colchester, In Oxford Journal of Archaeology 13(1) Although houses tended to shrink in size, with 75% of the large townhouses being replaced by smaller buildings by c. 350, in the period 275 to 325 a weak "building boom" (the " Constantinian renaissance") occurred in the town, with new houses being built and old ones reshaped. Many of the town's mosaics date from this period, including the famous Lion Walk mosaic. Late Roman robber trenches have been found at some sites, used for removing and salvaging tessellated floors and tiles for reuse in later houses. The pottery industry in the town had declined significantly by 300, but the 4th century saw an increase in the bone-working industry for making furniture and jewellery, and evidence of blown glass making has also been found. Large areas of the Southern part of the town were given over to agriculture. Despite scaling down of private buildings an increase in size and grandeur of public buildings occurred in the period 275–400. The Temple of Claudius and its associated '' temenos'' buildings were reconstructed in the early-4th century, along with the possible forum-basilica building to the south of it.Drury, P.J, (1984) The Temple of Claudius Reconsidered. Britannia XV, 7–50 The Temple appears to have had a large apsidal hall built across the front of the podium steps, with numismatic dating evidence taking the date of the building up to at least 395. A large hall at the Culver Street site, dated 275–325 to c. 400, may have been a large centralised storage barn for taxes paid in kind with grain. Although the Gosbecks Theatre had been demolished by the 3rd century, the theatre at Maidenburgh Street may still have been in use throughout the 4th century.Crummy, Philip (1982) The Roman Theatre at Colchester. "Britannia XIII", 299–302 The sunken chambers of the water reservoir system found in Castle Park appear to have become blocked with debris and dumped rubbish in the 4th century and was disused.Hull, M.R. 1958 Roman Colchester. Oxford Society of AntiquitiesCrummy, Philip (1980). The Temples of Roman Colchester. In Rodwell, W (ed.) Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research in Roman Britain. (Oxford, British Archaeological Report 77(i)) The Roman chariot circus was also demolished during the late 4th century. Increases in the number of clipped coins from the 4th century have been interpreted as a breakdown in the Roman monetary economy, with most new Bronze coins ceasing to be introduced in the town c. 395 and silver coins in 402 (though these coins may have remained in circulation long after being minted). For example, the coin sequence at the Butt Road church goes up to around 425, 14 years after Roman rule ended in the province. Late Roman military equipment has been discovered in the town, including an official '' cingulum militare'' belt buckle made in
Pannonia Pannonia (, ) was a Roman province, province of the Roman Empire bounded on the north and east by the Danube, on the west by Noricum and upper Roman Italy, Italy, and on the southward by Dalmatia (Roman province), Dalmatia and upper Moesia. It ...
for Roman frontier units. Alongside Roman military equipment 4th and early 5th century Germanic weaponry has been found alongside Germanic domestic objects in the Late Roman town, which has been interpreted by archaeologist Philip Crummy as perhaps representing Saxon ''
foederati ''Foederati'' ( ; singular: ''foederatus'' ) were peoples and cities bound by a treaty, known as ''foedus'', with Rome. During the Roman Republic, the term identified the '' socii'', but during the Roman Empire, it was used to describe foreign ...
'' mercenaries living and settling in the town during this period, several decades before the Saxon migrations of the mid to late 5th century.


Christianity in the late Roman town

During this period the late Roman church at Butt Road just outside the town walls was built with its associated cemetery containing over 650 graves (some containing fragments of Chinese silk), and may be one of the earliest churches in Britain. A strong numismatic chronology has been obtained from the over 500 coins found at the site, and puts its date from 320 to c.425. Five of the extramural pagan Romano-British Temples were abandoned in c.300, whilst ''Temple II'' at Sheepen was rebuilt in 350 and continued in existence until c. 375. ''Temple X'' outside of the Balkerne Gate had its ambulatory demolished in 325-50 leaving just its Cella, perhaps repurposed as a Christian temple. A nearby shrine may also have survived into the late 4th century. Several other possible churches or Christian buildings have been postulated, such as ''Building 127'' at Culver Street and possible Roman remains beneath St Helena's Chapel, St Nicholas Church and Roman "vaults" beneath St Botolph's Priory which might be a late-Roman Martyrium, although over interpretations include a bath-house. The Temple of Claudius, which underwent large-scale structural additions in the 4th century, may also have been repurposed as a Christian church, as a
Chi Rho The Chi Rho (☧, English pronunciation ; also known as ''chrismon'') is one of the earliest forms of the Christogram, formed by superimposing the first two (capital) letters—chi (letter), chi and rho (ΧΡ)—of the Greek (Romanization of ...
symbol carved on a piece of Roman pottery found in the vicinity of the ''temenos''. Further Roman Christian objects found in the town include a candlestick from Balkerne Lane inscribed with an Iota Chi symbol and a bronze spoon with AETERNVS VITA written on it. Three British Bishops attended the Council of Arles (314), one from London, one from York and a third from a place whose first word is ''Colonia'' but whose second word is too corrupted to make out with any certainty, but has been interpreted as something like ''Camulodensium'' (although Lincoln and
Gloucester Gloucester ( ) is a cathedral city, non-metropolitan district and the county town of Gloucestershire in the South West England, South West of England. Gloucester lies on the River Severn, between the Cotswolds to the east and the Forest of Dean ...
are other possible candidates).Toynbee, JMC (1953)'Christianity in Roman Britain' in Journal of Brit. Arch. Ass. 16 (3rd Series)


Sub-Roman period

The formal collapse of Roman administration in the province occurred in the years 409–411. Activity in the 5th century continued in Camulodunum at a much reduced level, with evidence of at the Butt Road site showing it briefly carrying on into the early 5th century. Several burials within the towns walls have been dated to the late 5th century. These include two burials discovered at East Hill House in 1983, which have been surgically decapitated (in a fashion found in both Pre-Roman and some early pagan-Saxon burial practices), and other burials cut into the 4th century barn at Culver Street. A skeleton of a young woman found stretched out on a Roman mosaic floor at Beryfield, within the SE corner of the walled town, was initially interpreted as a victim of a Saxon attack on the Sub-Roman town; however, it is now believed that the burial is a post-Roman grave cut down to the hard floor surface (the name ''Beryfield'' means "burial field", a reference to the Medieval graveyards in the area). Burials of men armed with Germanic weaponry have also been found outside of the town walls, and might be the graves of
Saxon The Saxons, sometimes called the Old Saxons or Continental Saxons, were a Germanic people of early medieval "Old" Saxony () which became a Carolingian " stem duchy" in 804, in what is now northern Germany. Many of their neighbours were, like th ...
''
foederati ''Foederati'' ( ; singular: ''foederatus'' ) were peoples and cities bound by a treaty, known as ''foedus'', with Rome. During the Roman Republic, the term identified the '' socii'', but during the Roman Empire, it was used to describe foreign ...
'' or Saxon settlers. Post-Roman/early Saxon burials from the 5th, 6th and 7th centuries, some buried with weapons, have been found outside of the walls in the areas of former Roman cemeteries, suggesting a continuity of practice. A study by archaeologist Henry Laver concluded that all of the Roman cemeteries around Colchester contain later burials dating to the early Saxon period.Crummy, Philip (1981). Colchester Archaeological Report 1/CBA Research Report 39: Aspects of Anglo-Saxon and Norman Colchester. Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust and the
Council for British Archaeology The Council for British Archaeology (CBA) is an educational charity established in 1944 in the UK. It works to involve people in archaeology and to promote the appreciation and care of the historic environment for the benefit of present and fut ...
. ()
Excavations of the former Goojerat and Hyderabad Barracks in 2004 and 2010 saw the discovery of other pagan 5th century burials with Germanic weapons, nine of which were located in burial mounds surrounded by circular ditches.The Colchester Archaeologist. Issue no. 24. (2011). (ISSN 0952-0988) As well as burials, coin hoards from the late Fourth and early Fifth centuries have been found, including a hoard minted in the reign of Constantine III (reigned 407–411) from Artillery Folly, that are heavily clipped; this clipping must have occurred in the years after they were minted and so would have happened in the 400s (decade). Scattered structures have also been excavated by archaeologists, such as a mid-5th century dwelling at Lion Walk, as well as 5th century loam weights and cruciform-brooches found across the town. At the Culver Street site a thin layer of early Saxon pottery was discovered along with two dwellings. Other circumstantial evidence of activity includes large post-Roman rubbish dumps, which suggest nearby occupation by Romano-Britons. Excavations at Guildford Road Estate have uncovered a Germanic-style brooch, dated to around the 420s, associated with a group of beads from a necklace, also dated to sometime between 400 and 440. The presence of Late Roman and Germanic military and domestic finds within the Late Roman and Pre-Saxon early-Fifth Century town has been interpreted by archaeologist Philip Crummy as either the result of Saxon ''foederati'' and their families living within Camulodunum, and/or cultural influences from the continent on the local population.


Roman legacy in Saxon and early medieval Colchester

Later dwellings at Culver Street and artifacts from the 7th and 8th centuries are seen as evidence that the shell of the Roman town was still in use into the Saxon period. The '' History of the Britons'' traditionally ascribed to Nennius includes a list of the 28 cities of Britain, including a Cair Colun that has been thought to indicate Colchester.Ford, David Nash.
The 28 Cities of Britain
" at Britannia. 2000.
Newman, John Henry & al
p. 92.">''Lives of the English Saints: St. German, Bishop of Auxerre'', Ch. X: "Britain in 429, A. D.", p. 92.
James Toovey (London), 1844.
Archaeology aside, Colchester first explicitly re-enters the ''written'' historical record again in the
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' is a collection of annals in Old English, chronicling the history of the Anglo-Saxons. The original manuscript of the ''Chronicle'' was created late in the ninth century, probably in Wessex, during the reign of ...
for 917, the year it was retaken from the Danes by a Saxon army led by King Edward the Elder, who "restored" the borough to English rule. The walls of the colonia have been retained, and many of the
Medieval In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of World history (field), global history. It began with the fall of the West ...
and
Saxon The Saxons, sometimes called the Old Saxons or Continental Saxons, were a Germanic people of early medieval "Old" Saxony () which became a Carolingian " stem duchy" in 804, in what is now northern Germany. Many of their neighbours were, like th ...
buildings in Colchester, including the
Castle A castle is a type of fortification, fortified structure built during the Middle Ages predominantly by the nobility or royalty and by Military order (monastic society), military orders. Scholars usually consider a ''castle'' to be the private ...
, St Botolph's Priory, St John's Abbey, Greyfriars, Holy Trinity church and many of the Norman "stone houses" were built from the vast amounts of Roman debris left over in the town.Crummy, Philip (1997) City of Victory; the story of Colchester – Britain's first Roman town. Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust () Over 25,000 cubic metres of reused Roman tile and brick was used for the Castle alone. The quarrying of Roman rubble for building material reached a peak in the 12th and 13th Centuries. Several structures from the Saxon and Medieval period incorporated Roman structural remains within their walls and outlines. The Temple of Claudius was a standing ruin until the Normans cleared the superstructure to incorporate the podium into
Colchester Castle Colchester Castle is a Norman architecture, Norman castle in Colchester, Essex, England, dating from the second half of the eleventh century. The keep of the castle is mostly intact and is the largest example of its kind anywhere in Europe, d ...
in the 11th Century. In 2014 the discovery of marble pillars belonging to the Monumental Facade of the Temple precinct was made behind the High Street, with evidence suggesting that they were still standing until the Castle-builders knocked them over to make way for the Castle Bailey. The Normans referred to the Temple as King Coel's Palace and to the barbican of Balkerne Gate as Colkyng's Castle, reflecting a myth that continued into the medieval period, and was recorded in the ''Colchester Chronicle'' (written in the 13th or early 14th century at St John's Abbey), that the Roman town was founded by a warlord called Coel. According to the Medieval legend, which garbles folk-tales and pseudo-historical events together, he was supposedly the father of St Helena, who was married off to Constantius in a bid to get the latter to lift his two-year siege of the town. Their son,
Constantine the Great Constantine I (27 February 27222 May 337), also known as Constantine the Great, was a Roman emperor from AD 306 to 337 and the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity. He played a Constantine the Great and Christianity, pivotal ro ...
was then supposedly born in the town. St Helena is today the patron saint of Colchester, and the town's coat of arms depict the True Cross and crowns of the Three Kings that she is supposed to have found in
Jerusalem Jerusalem is a city in the Southern Levant, on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is one of the List of oldest continuously inhabited cities, oldest cities in the world, and ...
. Other examples of Roman remains used in later buildings include several medieval cellars on the High Street, St Nicholas's Church (demolished in the 1950s), which was built on a Roman building and originally incorporated the remains of standing Roman walls, and St Helen's Chapel, which was built into the corner of the Roman theatre in the town. A study in the late 1970s by Colchester Archaeological Trust discovered that many of the Medieval property boundaries within Colchester's town centre followed the lines of Roman street frontages and the walls of Roman buildings. This was especially prominent along the High Street, where the medieval street "frontage of the High Street between St Runwald's Church and Maidenburgh Street has fossilized the imprint of the Roman town underneath...". St Runwald's Church (demolished in the 19th century) formerly stood in the centre of the High Street market just east of the current Town Hall, and was built into the corner of a junction between two Roman streets. The study concluded that Roman building ruins and old street remains were in some cases used as a template for later property divisions. The name of the town and the River Colne are also a legacy of the Romans. "Colchester" (first appearing in written form in the 10th Century as ''Colencaester'' and ''Colneceastre'') is a
Saxon The Saxons, sometimes called the Old Saxons or Continental Saxons, were a Germanic people of early medieval "Old" Saxony () which became a Carolingian " stem duchy" in 804, in what is now northern Germany. Many of their neighbours were, like th ...
name derived from the Latin words ''Colonia'' and ''Castra'', with the River Colne also taking its name from ''Colonia''.


See also

* History of Colchester * Oldest town in Britain * Trinovantes *
Catuvellauni The Catuvellauni (Common Brittonic: *''Catu-wellaunī'', "war-chiefs") were a Celtic tribe or state of southeastern Britain before the Roman conquest, attested by inscriptions into the 4th century. The fortunes of the Catuvellauni and thei ...
* Cunobeline * Caratacus * Addedomarus * Camelot


References


Bibliography

*


External links


Colchester Archaeological Trust home page

History of Roman Colchester

Colchester and Ipswich Museums Home Page
{{Roman visitor sites in the UK 1st century in Roman Britain Ancient Roman temples Archaeological sites in Essex Buildings and structures completed in the 1st century Claudius Coloniae (Roman) Former national capitals Iron Age sites in England Roman Colchester Roman legionary fortresses in England Roman religious sites in the United Kingdom Roman towns and cities in England Sub-Roman Britain