The gens Caecilia was a

plebeian In ancient Rome, the plebeians or plebs were the general body of free Roman citizens who were not patricians, as determined by the census, or in other words "commoners". Both classes were hereditary. Etymology The precise origins of the gro ...

family at

ancient Rome In modern historiography, ancient Rome is the Roman people, Roman civilisation from the founding of Rome, founding of the Italian city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, collapse of the Western Roman Em ...

. Members of this

gens In ancient Rome, a gens ( or , ; : gentes ) was a family consisting of individuals who shared the same ''nomen gentilicium'' and who claimed descent from a common ancestor. A branch of a gens, sometimes identified by a distinct cognomen, was cal ...

are mentioned in history as early as the fifth century BC, but the first of the Caecilii who obtained the

consulship The consuls were the highest elected public officials of the Roman Republic ( to 27 BC). Romans considered the consulship the second-highest level of the ''cursus honorum''an ascending sequence of public offices to which politicians aspire ...

was Lucius Caecilius Metellus Denter, in 284 BC.''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'', vol. I, p. 526 (" Caecilia Gens"). The Caecilii Metelli were one of the most powerful families of the late

Republic A republic, based on the Latin phrase ''res publica'' ('public affair' or 'people's affair'), is a State (polity), state in which Power (social and political), political power rests with the public (people), typically through their Representat ...

, from the decades before the

First Punic War The First Punic War (264–241 BC) was the first of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage, the two main powers of the western Mediterranean in the early 3rd century BC. For 23 years, in the longest continuous conflict and grea ...

down to the time of

Augustus Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian (), was the founder of the Roman Empire, who reigned as the first Roman emperor from 27 BC until his death in A ...

Origin

Like other Roman families in the later times of the

, the Caecilii traced their origin to a mythical personage, Caeculus, the founder of Praeneste. He was said to be the son of Vulcan, and engendered by a spark; a similar story was told of

Servius Tullius Servius Tullius was the legendary sixth king of Rome, and the second of its Etruscan dynasty. He reigned from 578 to 535 BC. Roman and Greek sources describe his servile origins and later marriage to a daughter of Lucius Tarquinius Pri ...

. He was exposed as an infant, but preserved by his divine father, and raised by maidens. He grew up amongst the shepherds, and became a highwayman. Coming of age, he called upon the people of the countryside to build a new town, convincing them with the aid of a miracle. An alternative tradition claimed that the Caecilii were descended from Caecas, one of the companions of

Aeneas In Greco-Roman mythology, Aeneas ( , ; from ) was a Troy, Trojan hero, the son of the Trojan prince Anchises and the Greek goddess Aphrodite (equivalent to the Roman Venus (mythology), Venus). His father was a first cousin of King Priam of Troy ...

, who came with him to Italy after the sack of Troy.

Praenomina

The

praenomina The praenomen (; plural: praenomina) was a first name chosen by the parents of a Ancient Rome, Roman child. It was first bestowed on the ''dies lustricus'' (day of lustration), the eighth day after the birth of a girl, or the ninth day after the ...

used by the Caecilii during the Republic are '' Lucius'', '' Quintus'', ''

Gaius Gaius, sometimes spelled Caius, was a common Latin praenomen; see Gaius (praenomen). People * Gaius (biblical figure) (1st century AD) *Gaius (jurist) (), Roman jurist * Gaius Acilius * Gaius Antonius * Gaius Antonius Hybrida * Gaius Asinius Gal ...

'', and '' Marcus''. '' Titus'' appears only towards the very end of the Republic, and is not known to have been used by the great house of the Caecilii Metelli.

Branches and cognomina

The cognomina of this gens under the Republic are ''Bassus'', ''Denter, Cornutus'', ''Metellus'', ''Niger'', and ''Rufus'', of which the Metelli are the best known. From the consulship of Lucius Caecilius Metellus Denter, the family of the Metelli became one of the most distinguished at Rome. In the latter half of the second century BC, it obtained an extraordinary number of the highest offices of the state. Quintus Metellus, who was consul in 143 BC, had four sons, who were raised to the consulship in succession; and his brother, Lucius Metellus, who was consul in 142, had two sons, who were likewise elevated to the same dignity. The Metelli were distinguished as a family for their unwavering support of the party of the

Optimates ''Optimates'' (, ; Latin for "best ones"; ) and ''populares'' (; Latin for "supporters of the people"; ) are labels applied to politicians, political groups, traditions, strategies, or ideologies in the late Roman Republic. There is "heated ...

. The etymology of their name is quite uncertain. Festus connects it, probably from mere similarity of sound, with . The history of the family is very difficult to trace, and in many parts conjectural. It is treated at length by Drumann. The victory of the consul L. Caecilius Metellus against Hasdrubal's

elephant Elephants are the largest living land animals. Three living species are currently recognised: the African bush elephant ('' Loxodonta africana''), the African forest elephant (''L. cyclotis''), and the Asian elephant ('' Elephas maximus ...

s at Panormus in 251 seems to have left a durable impression on the Caecili Metelli, as many of them featured an elephant on the coins they minted. In fact, elephants are so often used on their coins that it might have become their emblem.

Members

Caecilii Metelli

* Gaius Caecilius (Metellus), grandfather of Lucius Caecilius Metellus, the consul of 251 BC, and perhaps the father of Lucius Caecilius Metellus Denter, consul in 284. * Lucius Caecilius (C. f.) Metellus Denter,

consul Consul (abbrev. ''cos.''; Latin plural ''consules'') was the title of one of the two chief magistrates of the Roman Republic, and subsequently also an important title under the Roman Empire. The title was used in other European city-states thro ...

in 284 and

praetor ''Praetor'' ( , ), also ''pretor'', was the title granted by the government of ancient Rome to a man acting in one of two official capacities: (i) the commander of an army, and (ii) as an elected ''magistratus'' (magistrate), assigned to disch ...

in 283 BC, slain in battle against the

Senones The Senones or Senonii (Gaulish: "the ancient ones") were an ancient Gallic tribe dwelling in the Seine basin, around present-day Sens, during the Iron Age and the Roman period. Part of the Senones settled in the Italian peninsula, where the ...

. * Lucius Caecilius L. f. C. n. Metellus, consul in 251 and 247 BC, during the

, and afterward Pontifex Maximus. * Lucius Caecilius L. f. L. n. Metellus,

quaestor A quaestor ( , ; ; "investigator") was a public official in ancient Rome. There were various types of quaestors, with the title used to describe greatly different offices at different times. In the Roman Republic, quaestors were elected officia ...

in 214 BC, was degraded to an '' aerarius'' by the censors for proposing to abandon Italy and establish a new colony after the

Battle of Cannae The Battle of Cannae (; ) was a key engagement of the Second Punic War between the Roman Republic and Ancient Carthage, Carthage, fought on 2 August 216 BC near the ancient village of Cannae in Apulia, southeast Italy. The Carthaginians and ...

. Nevertheless, he was elected

tribune of the plebs Tribune of the plebs, tribune of the people or plebeian tribune () was the first office of the Roman Republic, Roman state that was open to the plebs, plebeians, and was, throughout the history of the Republic, the most important check on the pow ...

for 213, and prosecuted the censors. * Quintus Caecilius L. f. L. n. Metellus, consul in 206 BC, during the

Second Punic War The Second Punic War (218 to 201 BC) was the second of Punic Wars, three wars fought between Ancient Carthage, Carthage and Roman Republic, Rome, the two main powers of the western Mediterranean Basin, Mediterranean in the 3rd century BC. For ...

. * Marcus Caecilius L. f. L. n. Metellus, praetor in 206 BC. * Quintus Caecilius Q. f. L. n. Metellus, surnamed ''Macedonicus'', triumphed over

Andriscus Andriscus (, ''Andrískos''; 154/153 BC – 146 BC), also often referenced as Pseudo-Philip, was a Greek pretender who became the last independent king of Macedon in 149 BC as Philip VI (, ''Philipos''), based on his claim of being Philip, a n ...

, and became consul in 143 BC, and censor in 131. * Lucius Caecilius Q. f. L. n. Metellus, surnamed ''Calvus'', consul in 142 BC. * Quintus Caecilius Q. f. Q. n. Metellus, consul in 123 and censor in 120 BC, conquered the

Balearic Islands The Balearic Islands are an archipelago in the western Mediterranean Sea, near the eastern coast of the Iberian Peninsula. The archipelago forms a Provinces of Spain, province and Autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Spain, ...

, receiving the surname ''Balearicus'', and founded several cities there. * Lucius Caecilius L. f. Q. n. Metellus, surnamed ''Delmaticus'', consul in 119, triumphed over the Dalmati, and later became Pontifex Maximus. * Lucius Caecilius Q. f. Q. n. Metellus, surnamed ''Diadematus'', consul in 117 BC and censor in 115 BC. * Marcus Caecilius Q. f. Q. n. Metellus, consul in 115 BC, triumphed over the

Sardinia Sardinia ( ; ; ) is the Mediterranean islands#By area, second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, and one of the Regions of Italy, twenty regions of Italy. It is located west of the Italian Peninsula, north of Tunisia an ...

ns. * Gaius Caecilius Q. f. Q. n. Metellus, surnamed ''Caprarius'', consul in 113 and censor on 102 BC, triumphed over the

Thracians The Thracians (; ; ) were an Indo-European languages, Indo-European speaking people who inhabited large parts of Southeast Europe in ancient history.. "The Thracians were an Indo-European people who occupied the area that today is shared betwee ...

. * Caecilia Q. f. Q. n. Metella, married Gaius Servilius Vatia. * Caecilia Q. f. Q. n. Metella, married

Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Serapio Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Serapio (182 or 181 – 132 BC) was a Roman politician. He is most well known for mobilising the mob which killed Tiberius Gracchus, who was at the time attempting to stand for re-election as plebeian tribune ...

. * Quintus Caecilius L. f. Q. n. Metellus, surnamed ''Numidicus'', consul in 109 and censor in 102 BC, triumphed over Jugurtha; expelled from the senate and exiled by

Lucius Appuleius Saturninus Lucius Appuleius Saturninus (died late 100 BC) was a Roman populist and tribune. He is most notable for introducing a series of legislative reforms, alongside his associate Gaius Servilius Glaucia and with the consent of Gaius Marius, during t ...

, and not recalled for two years. * Caecilia L. f. Q. n. Metella, wife of Lucius Licinius Lucullus, and mother of the younger

Lucullus Lucius Licinius Lucullus (; 118–57/56 BC) was a Ancient Romans, Roman List of Roman generals, general and Politician, statesman, closely connected with Lucius Cornelius Sulla. In culmination of over 20 years of almost continuous military and ...

, the conqueror of Mithridates; she had a reputation for dissoluteness. * Quintus Caecilius Q. f. Q. n. Metellus, surnamed ''Nepos'', consul in 98 BC. * Quintus Caecilius (L.? f.) Q. n. Metellus, surnamed ''Celer'', a mediocre orator, probably

in 90 BC and perhaps

aedile Aedile ( , , from , "temple edifice") was an elected office of the Roman Republic. Based in Rome, the aediles were responsible for maintenance of public buildings () and regulation of public festivals. They also had powers to enforce public orde ...

in 88. * Caecilia Q. f. Q. n. Metella, married Appius Claudius Pulcher, consul in 79 BC. * Caecilia L. f. L. n. Metella, married first Marcus Aemilius Scaurus, consul in 115 BC, and second

Lucius Cornelius Sulla Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (, ; 138–78 BC), commonly known as Sulla, was a Roman people, Roman general and statesman of the late Roman Republic. A great commander and ruthless politician, Sulla used violence to advance his career and his co ...

, the dictator. * Quintus Caecilius Q. f. L. n. Metellus, surnamed ''Pius'', one of

Sulla Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (, ; 138–78 BC), commonly known as Sulla, was a Roman people, Roman general and statesman of the late Roman Republic. A great commander and ruthless politician, Sulla used violence to advance his career and his co ...

's most successful generals, consul in 80 BC, and later Pontifex Maximus. * Gaius Caecilius Metellus, a junior senator ''circa'' 80 BC. * Quintus Caecilius Metellus, surnamed ''Creticus'', consul in 69 BC, triumphed over the Cretans. * Lucius Caecilius Metellus, consul in 68 BC, died at the beginning of his year of office. * Marcus Caecilius Metellus, praetor in 69 BC. * Quintus Caecilius Metellus Creticus, perhaps quaestor ''circa'' 60 BC, with Gaius Trebonius. * Quintus Caecilius Q. f. (L.? n.) Metellus Celer, consul in 60 BC. * Marcus Caecilius (M. f.) Metellus, mentioned by

Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, orator, writer and Academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises tha ...

in 60 BC. * Caecilia Q. f. Q. n. Metella, daughter of Metellus Celer. * Quintus Caecilius Q. f. Q. n. Metellus Nepos, consul in 57 BC. * Quintus Caecilius Q. f. Q. n. Metellus Pius Scipio, the son of Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica, adopted by Metellus Pius; appointed consul ''suffectus'' from the kalends of

Sextilis Sextilis () or ''mensis Sextilis'' was the Latin name for what was originally the sixth month in the Roman calendar The Roman calendar was the calendar used by the Roman Kingdom and Roman Republic. Although the term is primarily used for ...

in 52 BC, and a partisan of Pompeius. * Lucius Caecilius (L. f.) Metellus, tribune of the plebs in 49 BC, opposed Caesar's attempt to take possession of the sacred treasury. * Quintus Caecilius (Q. f. Q. n.) Metellus Creticus Silanus, consul in AD 7.

Caecilii Dentri

*Lucius Caecilius Denter, praetor in 182 BC, obtained Sicilia for his province. * Marcus Caecilius Denter, one of the ambassadors sent to

Perseus In Greek mythology, Perseus (, ; Greek language, Greek: Περσεύς, Romanization of Greek, translit. Perseús) is the legendary founder of the Perseid dynasty. He was, alongside Cadmus and Bellerophon, the greatest Greek hero and slayer of ...

in 173 BC to inspect the affairs of Macedonia, and to

Alexandria Alexandria ( ; ) is the List of cities and towns in Egypt#Largest cities, second largest city in Egypt and the List of coastal settlements of the Mediterranean Sea, largest city on the Mediterranean coast. It lies at the western edge of the Nile ...

to renew the friendship with Ptolemaeus.

Caecilii Cornuti

* Marcus Caecilius Cornutus, praetor before 90 BC, then legate in 89 and 88 during the Marsic War. He escaped the purges of Marius in 87 through a ruse of his slaves, who passed him off for dead, before spiriting him off to Gaul. * Gaius Caecilius Cornutus, tribune of the plebs in 61 BC, praetor in 57, and

promagistrate In ancient Rome, a promagistrate () was a person who was granted the power via ''prorogation'' to act in place of an ordinary magistrate in the field. This was normally ''pro consule'' or ''pro praetore'', that is, in place of a consul or praeto ...

the following year in Bithynia and Pontus. He helped

to return from exile during his praetorship, who affectionately called him a "quasi- Cato" for his Optimate ideas. He was probably the historian Cornutus, known from only three fragments, which deal with the

Civil War A civil war is a war between organized groups within the same Sovereign state, state (or country). The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies.J ...

between Caesar and

Pompey Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (; 29 September 106 BC – 28 September 48 BC), known in English as Pompey ( ) or Pompey the Great, was a Roman general and statesman who was prominent in the last decades of the Roman Republic. ...

. * Marcus Caecilius Cornutus, praetor in 43 BC, committed suicide when Octavian seized Rome after the Battle of Mutina. * Marcus Caecilius M. f. Cornutus, a member of the College of Arvales in 21–20 BC, but perhaps as early as 29, when Augustus re-established the college. * Marcus Caecilius M. f. M. n. Cornutus, succeeded his father as Arval. He was of

ian rank in the reign of

Tiberius Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus ( ; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37) was Roman emperor from AD 14 until 37. He succeeded his stepfather Augustus, the first Roman emperor. Tiberius was born in Rome in 42 BC to Roman politician Tiberius Cl ...

but, unjustly accused in connection with a plot against the Emperor, put an end to his own life in AD 24.

Others

* Gaia Caecilia, the legendary personification of Roman domesticity, frequently equated with Tanaquil, the wife of Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth King of Rome. * Quintus Caecilius,

in 439 BC. * Statius Caecilius, a comic poet of the early 2nd century BC. * Quintus Caecilius Niger, a Sicilian, and quaestor of

Verres Gaius Verres ( 114 – 43 BC) was a Roman magistrate, notorious for his misgovernment of Sicily. His extortion of local farmers and plundering of temples led to his prosecution by Cicero, whose accusations were so devastating that his defence advo ...

during his administration of Sicily. He contended with Cicero for the prosecution of Verres, pretending to be the enemy of his former master, but in reality desiring to deprive the Sicilians of Cicero's advocacy. Cicero's oration '' Divinatio in Caecilium'' was delivered against this Caecilius when the had to decide which should be given the prosecution. * Lucius Caecilius Rufus, half-brother of Publius Cornelius Sulla, was tribune of the plebs in 63 BC, and proposed that both Sulla and Publius Autronius Paetus, who had been elected consuls for 66, but been convicted of bribery and condemned, should again be allowed to stand for office; however, Sulla convinced him to withdraw the proposal. Rufus was a supporter of Cicero and the aristocratic party, and opposed agrarian reform. He was praetor in 57, and proposed the recall of Cicero from banishment, incurring the wrath of Publius Clodius Pulcher. * Quintus Caecilius, an '' eques'', slain by his brother-in-law, Catiline, in the time of Sulla. * Quintus Caecilius, an ''eques'', who became wealthy as a moneylender, died in 57 BC, leaving his fortune to his nephew,

Titus Pomponius Atticus Titus Pomponius Atticus (November 110 BC – 31 March 32 BC; later named Quintus Caecilius Pomponianus Atticus) was a Roman editor, banker, and patron of letters, best known for his correspondence and close friendship with prominent Roman ...

. * Quintus Caecilius Bassus, an ''eques'', and partisan of Pompeius, was praetor in 46 BC. * Titus Caecilius, '' primus pilus'' in the army of Lucius Afranius, killed at the Battle of Ilerda in 49 BC. * Caecilia, wife of the younger Publius Cornelius Lentulus Spinther, who divorced her in 45 BC. * (Caecilius) Bucilianus, a friend of Brutus and Cassius, was, together with his brother, Caecilius, recruited to the conspiracy against Caesar. On the fateful day, Bucilianus wounded Caesar in the back. He was probably a Bucilius adopted by a Caecilius.Appian, ''Bellum Civile'', ii. 113, 117. * Caecilius, one of the conspirators against Caesar, along with his brother, Bucilianus. * Caecilia, the daughter of Titus Pomponius Atticus, married Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. * Quintus Caecilius Epirota, a grammarian, and

freedman A freedman or freedwoman is a person who has been released from slavery, usually by legal means. Historically, slaves were freed by manumission (granted freedom by their owners), emancipation (granted freedom as part of a larger group), or self- ...

of Titus Pomponius Atticus. * Titus Caecilius Eutychides, a freedman of Titus Pomponius Atticus, afterwards adopted by Quintus Caecilius. * Caecilius Calactinus, a Jewish Greek rhetorician at Rome in the time of

. * Caecilius Bion, a writer on the properties of medicinal plants, used by

Pliny the Elder Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/24 79), known in English as Pliny the Elder ( ), was a Roman Empire, Roman author, Natural history, naturalist, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the Roman emperor, emperor Vesp ...

. * Lucius Caecilius Jucundus, a banker at

Pompeii Pompeii ( ; ) was a city in what is now the municipality of Pompei, near Naples, in the Campania region of Italy. Along with Herculaneum, Stabiae, and Villa Boscoreale, many surrounding villas, the city was buried under of volcanic ash and p ...

during the first century AD, selected as the fictionalized subject of the Cambridge Latin Course. * Quintus Caecilius L. f. Jucundus, elder son of the Pompeiian banker. * Sextus Caecilius L. f. Jucundus Metellus, younger son of the Pompeiian banker. *

Caecilius of Elvira Saint Caecilius (''Cecil, Cecilius, Cäcilius'', ) is venerated as the patron saint of Granada, Spain. Life Tradition makes him a Christian missionary of the 1st century, during the Apostolic Age. Caecilius first worked as an itinerant bishop ...

, or Saint Caecilius, traditional founder of the Archdiocese of Granada ''circa'' AD 64. * Gnaeus Caecilius Simplex, appointed consul by the emperor Vitellius in AD 69. * Caecilius Rufinus, expelled from the

senate A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: ''Senatus''), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: ''senex'' meaning "the el ...

Domitian Domitian ( ; ; 24 October 51 – 18 September 96) was Roman emperor from 81 to 96. The son of Vespasian and the younger brother of Titus, his two predecessors on the throne, he was the last member of the Flavian dynasty. Described as "a r ...

because he danced. * Caecilius Clemens, a notary in Egypt mentioned between AD 86 and 100 in four papyri, notably Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 241 and 581. * Caecilius Classicus, proconsul of

Hispania Baetica Hispania Baetica, often abbreviated Baetica, was one of three Roman provinces created in Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula) in 27 BC. Baetica was bordered to the west by Lusitania, and to the northeast by Tarraconensis. Baetica remained one of ...

from AD 97 to 98, was prosecuted for corruption, but died before he could be tried. * Aulus Caecilius Faustinus, consul in AD 99. * Gaius Caecilius, grandfather of the writer and statesman "Pliny the Younger". * Lucius Caecilius Cilo, father of the writer and statesman "Pliny the Younger". * Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, or "Pliny the Younger", a writer and statesman during the late first and early second century. He was a member of gens Caecilia from birth, but was adopted by his maternal uncle, the scholar

Gaius Plinius Secundus Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/24 79), known in English as Pliny the Elder ( ), was a Roman Empire, Roman author, Natural history, naturalist, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the Roman emperor, emperor Vesp ...

, or "Pliny the Elder", and changed his name accordingly. * Quintus Caecilius Redditus, an , was governor of Mauretania Tingitana from AD 120 to 122, and later of

Noricum Noricum () is the Latin name for the kingdom or federation of tribes that included most of modern Austria and part of Slovenia. In the first century AD, it became a province of the Roman Empire. Its borders were the Danube to the north, R ...

. * Quintus Caecilius Marcellus Dentilianus, consul around AD 150. * Caecilius Juventianus, governor of Noricum during the reign of Antoninus Pius. * Gaius Caecilius Salvianus, vice prefect of

Roman Egypt Roman Egypt was an imperial province of the Roman Empire from 30 BC to AD 642. The province encompassed most of modern-day Egypt except for the Sinai. It was bordered by the provinces of Crete and Cyrenaica to the west and Judaea, ...

, who became governor in 176 following the execution of the rebel Gaius Calvisius Statianus. * Sextus Caecilius, a jurist, who may or may not be identical with Sextus Caecilius Africanus. * Sextus Caecilius Africanus, a jurist during the latter half of the second century * Caecilius, a writer of Argos on the art of fishing. * Caecilia, or

Saint Cecilia Saint Cecilia (), also spelled Cecelia, was a Roman Christian virgin martyr, who is venerated in Catholic, Eastern Orthodox Church, Orthodox, Anglican Communion, Anglican, and some Lutheran churches, such as the Church of Sweden. She became the ...

, a semi-legendary matron of Rome, and Christian martyr under

Alexander Severus Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander (1 October 208 – March 235), also known as Alexander Severus, was Roman emperor from 222 until 235. He was the last emperor from the Severan dynasty. Alexander took power in 222, when he succeeded his slain co ...

, ''circa'' AD 230. Modern historians suspect that she was executed during the reign of

Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius Antoninus ( ; ; 26 April 121 – 17 March 180) was Roman emperor from 161 to 180 and a Stoicism, Stoic philosopher. He was a member of the Nerva–Antonine dynasty, the last of the rulers later known as the Five Good Emperors ...

. * Caecilia Paulina, Roman empress during the

Crisis of the Third Century The Crisis of the Third Century, also known as the Military Anarchy or the Imperial Crisis, was a period in History of Rome, Roman history during which the Roman Empire nearly collapsed under the combined pressure of repeated Barbarian invasions ...

. She was the wife of

Maximinus Thrax Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus "Thrax" () was a Roman emperor from 235 to 238. Born of Thracian origin – given the nickname ''Thrax'' ("the Thracian") – he rose up through the military ranks, ultimately holding high command in the army of th ...

, and mother of Gaius Julius Verus Maximus. She probably died in 236, as Maximinus had her deified that year. Almost nothing is known about her, as most of the works dealing with the reign of Maximinus have been lost. * Caecilius Natalis, the person who maintains the cause of paganism in the dialogue of Marcus Minucius Felix, entitled '' Octavius''.Bähr, ''Die Christlich-Römische Theologie'', § 19. * Thascius Caecilius Cyprianus, a Christian philosopher, who became Bishop of

Carthage Carthage was an ancient city in Northern Africa, on the eastern side of the Lake of Tunis in what is now Tunisia. Carthage was one of the most important trading hubs of the Ancient Mediterranean and one of the most affluent cities of the classic ...

, was martyred, and sanctified as Saint Cyprian. * Lucius Caecilius Firmianus Lactantius, a Christian author and advisor to Emperor

Constantine the Great Constantine I (27 February 27222 May 337), also known as Constantine the Great, was a Roman emperor from AD 306 to 337 and the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity. He played a Constantine the Great and Christianity, pivotal ro ...

Footnotes

References

Bibliography

Polybius Polybius (; , ; ) was a Greek historian of the middle Hellenistic period. He is noted for his work , a universal history documenting the rise of Rome in the Mediterranean in the third and second centuries BC. It covered the period of 264–146 ...

, '' Historiae'' (The Histories). * Marcus Tullius Cicero, '' Divinatio in Quintum Caecilium'', '' Epistulae ad Atticum'', ''

Epistulae ad Familiares ''Epistulae ad Familiares'' (''Letters to Friends'') is a collection of letters between Ancient Rome, Roman politician and orator Cicero, Marcus Tullius Cicero and various public and private figures. The letters in this collection, together wit ...

'', '' Epistulae ad Quintum Fratrem'', ''Post Reditum in Senatu'', '' Pro Milone'', ''Pro Sulla''. * Quintus Tullius Cicero, '' De Petitione Consulatus'' (attributed). * Gaius Julius Caesar, ''

Commentarii de Bello Civili '' Commentarii de Bello Civili'' (''Commentaries on the Civil War''), or ''Bellum Civile'', is an account written by Julius Caesar of his war against Gnaeus Pompeius and the Roman Senate. It consists of three books covering the events of 49– ...

'' (Commentaries on the Civil War). *

Cornelius Nepos Cornelius Nepos (; c. 110 BC – c. 25 BC) was a Roman Empire, Roman biographer. He was born at Hostilia, a village in Cisalpine Gaul not far from Verona. Biography Nepos's Cisalpine birth is attested by Ausonius, and Pliny the Elder calls ...

, ''De Viris Illustribus'' (On the Lives of Famous Men). * Titus Livius (

Livy Titus Livius (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( ), was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding i ...

), '' History of Rome''. *

Valerius Maximus Valerius Maximus () was a 1st-century Latin writer and author of a collection of historical anecdotes: ' ("Nine books of memorable deeds and sayings", also known as ''De factis dictisque memorabilibus'' or ''Facta et dicta memorabilia''). He worke ...

, ''Factorum ac Dictorum Memorabilium'' (Memorable Facts and Sayings). * Marcus Annaeus Lucanus ( Lucan), ''

Pharsalia ''De Bello Civili'' (; ''On the Civil War''), more commonly referred to as the ''Pharsalia'' (, neuter plural), is a Latin literature, Roman Epic poetry, epic poem written by the poet Lucan, detailing the Caesar's civil war, civil war between Ju ...

''. * Quintus Asconius Pedianus, ''Commentarius in Oratio Ciceronis In Toga Candida'' (Commentary on Cicero's Oration ''In Toga Candida''), ''Commentarius in Oratio Ciceronis Pro Milone'' (Commentary on Cicero's Oration ''Pro Milone''). * Gaius Plinius Secundus (

), '' Historia Naturalis'' (Natural History). * Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus (

Pliny the Younger Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus (born Gaius Caecilius or Gaius Caecilius Cilo; 61 – ), better known in English as Pliny the Younger ( ), was a lawyer, author, and magistrate of Ancient Rome. Pliny's uncle, Pliny the Elder, helped raise and e ...

), '' Epistulae'' (Letters). *

Publius Cornelius Tacitus Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historiography, Roman historians by modern scholars. Tacitus’ two major historical ...

, ''

Annales Annals are a concise form of historical writing which record events chronologically, year by year. The equivalent word in Latin and French is ''annales'', which is used untranslated in English in various contexts. List of works with titles contai ...

'', '' Historiae''. *

Plutarch Plutarch (; , ''Ploútarchos'', ; – 120s) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo (Delphi), Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for his ''Parallel Lives'', ...

us, '' Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans''. * Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, '' De Vita Caesarum'' (Lives of the Caesars, or The Twelve Caesars). * Appianus Alexandrinus (

Appian Appian of Alexandria (; ; ; ) was a Greek historian with Roman citizenship who prospered during the reigns of the Roman Emperors Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius. He was born c. 95 in Alexandria. After holding the senior offices in the pr ...

), ''Bellum Civile'' (The Civil War). * Sextus Pompeius Festus, ''Epitome de M. Verrio Flacco de Verborum Significatu'' (Epitome of Marcus Verrius Flaccus' ''On the Meaning of Words''). *

Athenaeus Athenaeus of Naucratis (, or Nαυκράτιος, ''Athēnaios Naukratitēs'' or ''Naukratios''; ) was an ancient Greek rhetorician and Grammarian (Greco-Roman), grammarian, flourishing about the end of the 2nd and beginning of the 3rd century ...

, '' Deipnosophistae'' (The Banquet of the Learned). * Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus (

Cassius Dio Lucius Cassius Dio (), also known as Dio Cassius ( ), was a Roman historian and senator of maternal Greek origin. He published 80 volumes of the history of ancient Rome, beginning with the arrival of Aeneas in Italy. The volumes documented the ...

), ''Roman History''. *

Gaius Julius Solinus __NOTOC__ Gaius Julius Solinus, better known simply as Solinus, was a Latin grammarian, geographer, and compiler who probably flourished in the early 3rd century AD. Historical scholar Theodor Mommsen dates him to the middle of the 3rd century. ...

, ''De Mirabilis Mundi'' (On the Wonders of the World). * Marcus Minucius Felix, '' Octavius''. * Maurus Servius Honoratus ( Servius), ''Ad Virgilii Aeneidem Commentarii'' (Commentary on Vergil's Aeneid). * Johann Adam Hartung, ''Die Religion der Römer'' (The Religion of the Romans), Palm und Enke, Erlangen (1836). * Johann Christian Felix Bähr, ''Die Christlich-Römische Theologie'', Christian Friedrich Müller, Karlsruhe (1837). * Rudolf Heinrich Klausen, ''Aeneas und die Penaten'', Friedrich and Andreas Perthes, Hamburg and Gotha (1839). * Wilhelm Drumann, ''Geschichte Roms in seinem Übergang von der republikanischen zur monarchischen Verfassung, oder: Pompeius, Caesar, Cicero und ihre Zeitgenossen'', Königsberg (1834–1844). * ''

Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology The ''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'' is a biographical dictionary of classical antiquity, edited by William Smith (lexicographer), William Smith and originally published in London by John Taylor (English publisher), Tayl ...

'', William Smith, ed., Little, Brown and Company, Boston (1849). * * Michael Crawford, ''Roman Republican Coinage'', Cambridge University Press (1974, 2001). * Géza Alföldy, ''Konsulat und Senatorenstand unter der Antonien'' (The Consulate and Senatorial State under the Antonines), Rudolf Habelt, Bonn (1977). * Robin Waterfield, ''Plutarch: Roman Lives'', Oxford University Press (1999). *

Jörg Rüpke Jörg Rüpke (born 27 December 1962 in Herford, West Germany) is a German scholar of comparative religion and classical philology, recipient of the Gay-Lussac Humboldt Prize in 2008, and of the Advanced Grant of the European Research Council in ...

, Anne Glock, David Richardson (translator), ''Fasti Sacerdotum: A Prosopography of Pagan, Jewish, and Christian Religious Officials in the City of Rome, 300 BC to AD 499'', Oxford University Press, 2008. * Tim Cornell (editor), ''The Fragments of the Roman Historians'', Oxford University Press, 2013. * * {{cite book , editor1=August Pauly , editor2=Georg Wissowa , editor3=Wilhelm Kroll , editor4=Kurt Witte , editor5=Karl Mittelhaus , editor6=Konrat Ziegler , title=Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft , title-link=Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft , location=Stuttgart , publisher=J. B. Metzler , date=1894–1980 , ref={{harvid, RE Roman gentes