Burr conspiracy

The Burr conspiracy of 1805-1807, was a treasonous plot alleged to have been planned by American politician and former military officer Aaron Burr (1756-1836), in the years during and after his single term as the third vice president of the United States (1801-1805), during the presidential administration and first term of the third president Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826, served 1801-1809).

Burr was accused of attempting to use his international connections and support from a cabal of American planters, politicians, and United States Army officers to establish an independent country in the old federal Southwest Territory (1790-1796), south of the Ohio River, (future states of Kentucky, Tennessee and the future federal Territories of later Mississippi Territory (1798-1817), and adjacent Alabama Territory), and east of the Mississippi River and north of the southern coast along the Gulf of Mexico; or to invade / conquer the newly-acquired Louisiana Purchase of 1803, west of the Mississippi River, later organized as the Louisiana Territory (1804-1812), then divided into future 18th state of Louisiana and upper / northern portion as Missouri Territory (1812-1821); or plotting against the northern parts of the colonial New Spain (later Mexico), still held by Spain; or against and seizing the Florida peninsula of the longtime Royal Spanish colony of Spanish Florida, (consisting of West Florida and East Florida), in the Americas / Western Hemisphere, part of the world-wide Spanish Empire since the early 16th century.

Burr's version was that he intended to farm 40,000 acres (160 km²) in the Spanish Texas colonial province of the New Spain Viceroyalty which had been supposedly leased to him by the Spanish Crown.

In February 1807, former Vice President Burr was arrested on President Jefferson's orders and charged / indicted for treason, despite a lack of firm evidence. While Burr was ultimately acquitted of treason in a trial, due to the lack of detailed specificity in the 1787 text of the United States Constitution about any alleged crimes of treason, the fiasco and affair further destroyed his already faltering political career. Effigies of his likeness were hanged and burned throughout the country and the threat of additional charges from individual states forced him into exile overseas in Europe.

Burr's true intentions remain unclear and, as a result, have led to varying theories from historians: some claim that he intended to take parts of Texas and the newly acquired Louisiana Purchase of 1803 for himself, while others believe he intended to try to conquer Mexico to the southwest (then a Royal Spanish colonial province of the Kingdom of Spain in the Viceroyalty of New Spain, in the Americas, part of the world-wide Spanish Empire), or even as the gossip extended to wild accusations of conquering even the entirety of the continent of North America. The number of men backing him is also unclear, with wide-ranging different inconclusive accounts ranging from fewer than 40 men to upwards of 7,000.

James Wilkinson

General James Wilkinson was one of Burr's key partners. The Commanding General of the United States Army at the time, Wilkinson was known for his attempt to separate Kentucky and Tennessee from the union during the 1780s. Burr persuaded President Thomas Jefferson to appoint Wilkinson to the position of Governor of the Louisiana Territory in 1805. Wilkinson would later send a letter to Jefferson that Wilkinson claimed was evidence of Burr's treason.

Contacts with the British

While Burr was still vice president, in 1804 he met with Anthony Merry, the British Minister to the United States. As Burr told several of his colleagues, he suggested to Merry that the British might regain power in the Southwest if they contributed guns and money to his expedition. Burr offered to detach Louisiana from the Union in exchange for a half million dollars and a British fleet in the Gulf of Mexico. Merry wrote, "It is clear Mr. Burr... means to endeavour to be the instrument for effecting such a connection—he has told me that the inhabitants of Louisiana ... prefer having the protection and assistance of Great Britain."Melton (2002), p. 66 "Execution of their design is only delayed by the difficulty of obtaining previously an assurance of protection & assistance from some foreign power."

Thomas Jefferson was re-elected in 1804, but Burr was not nominated by the Democratic-Republicans to be Jefferson's running mate, and his term as vice president ended in March 1805. In November of that year, Burr again met with Merry and asked for two or three ships of the line and money. Merry informed Burr that London had not yet responded to Burr's plans which he had forwarded the previous year. Merry gave him fifteen hundred dollars. Those Merry worked for in London expressed no interest in furthering an American secession. In the spring of 1806, Burr had his final meeting with Merry. In this meeting Merry informed Burr that still no response had been received from London. Burr told Merry, "with or without such support it certainly would be made very shortly." Merry was recalled to Britain on June 1, 1806.

Travels to the Ohio Valley and Louisiana Territory

In 1805, Burr wrote to the newly appointed judge to Louisiana Territory that he had amorphous plans to travel westword.

That year Burr traveled from Pittsburgh, down the Ohio River, to the Louisiana Territory. He utilized the recently completed Louisville Canal, which allowed navigation past the Falls of the Ohio and facilitated travel to the western frontier. In the spring, Burr met with Harman Blennerhassett, who proved valuable in helping Burr further his plan. He provided friendship, support, and most importantly, access to Blennerhassett Island which he owned on the Ohio River, about 2 miles (3 km) below what is now Parkersburg, West Virginia.

On July 27, 1805, Burr stopped at a stand near the Duck River along the Natchez Trace to attend a party celebrating the signing of the Treaty of the Chickasaw Nation.

In 1806, Blennerhassett offered to provide Burr with substantial financial support. Burr and his co-conspirators used this island as a storage space for men and supplies. Burr tried to recruit volunteers to enter Spanish territories. In New Orleans, he met with the Mexican associates, a group of ''criollos'' whose objective was to conquer Mexico (still part of New Spain at the time). Burr was able to gain the support of New Orleans' Catholic bishop for his expedition into Mexico. Reports of Burr's plans first appeared in newspaper reports in August 1805, which suggested that Burr intended to raise a western army and "to form a separate government."

In early 1806, Burr contacted the Spanish diplomat and future Prime Minister, Carlos Martínez de Irujo y Tacón and told him that his plan was not just western secession, but the capture of Washington, D.C. Irujo wrote to his masters in Madrid about the coming "dismemberment of the colossal power which was growing at the very gates" of New Spain. Irujo allegedly gave Burr a few thousand dollars to commence his plan. The Spanish government in Madrid took no action.

Following the events in Kentucky, Burr returned to the West later in 1806 to recruit more volunteers for a military expedition down the Mississippi River. He began using Blennerhassett Island in the Ohio River to store men and supplies. The Governor of Ohio grew suspicious of the activity there, and ordered the state militia to raid the island and seize all supplies. Blennerhassett escaped with one boat, and he met Burr at the operation's headquarters on the Cumberland River. With a significantly smaller force, the two headed down the Ohio to the Mississippi River and New Orleans. Wilkinson had vowed to supply troops at New Orleans, but he concluded that the conspiracy was bound to fail, and rather than providing troops, Wilkinson revealed Burr's plan to President Jefferson.

Arrest

In February and March 1806, the federal attorney for Kentucky, Joseph Hamilton Daveiss, wrote Jefferson several letters warning him that Burr planned to provoke a rebellion in Spanish-held parts of the West, in order to join them to areas in the Southwest and form an independent nation under his rule. Similar accusations were published against local Democratic-Republicans in the Frankfort, Kentucky, newspaper ''Western World''. Jefferson dismissed Daveiss' accusations against Burr, a Democratic-Republican, as politically motivated.

Daveiss brought charges against Burr, claiming that he intended to make war with Mexico. However, a grand jury declined to indict Burr, who was defended by the young attorney Henry Clay.

By mid-1806, Jefferson and his cabinet began to take more notice of reports of political instability in the West. Their suspicions were confirmed when General Wilkinson sent the president correspondence which he had received from Burr. The text of the letter that was used as the principal evidence against Burr is as follows:

In an attempt to preserve his good name, Wilkinson edited the letters. They had been sent to him in cypher, and he altered the letters to testify to his own innocence and Burr's guilt. He warned Jefferson that Burr was "meditating the overthrow of isadministration" and "conspiring against the State." Jefferson alerted Congress of the plan, and ordered the arrest of anyone who conspired to attack Spanish territory. He warned authorities in the West to be aware of suspicious activities. Convinced of Burr's guilt, Jefferson ordered his arrest.

Burr continued his excursion down the Mississippi with Blennerhassett and the small army of men which they had recruited in Ohio. They intended to reach New Orleans, but in Bayou Pierre, 30 miles north of Natchez, they learned that a bounty was out for Burr's capture. Burr and his men surrendered at Bayou Pierre, and Burr was taken into custody. Charges were brought against him in the Mississippi Territory, but Burr escaped into the wilderness. He was recaptured on February 19, 1807, and was taken back to Virginia to stand trial.

Trial

Burr was charged with treason because of the alleged conspiracy and stood trial in Richmond, Virginia. A Revolutionary War hero, U.S. Senator, New York State Attorney General and Assemblyman, and finally vice president under Jefferson, Burr adamantly denied and vehemently resented all charges against his honor, his character or his patriotism.

Burr was charged with treason for assembling an armed force to take New Orleans and separate the Western from the Atlantic states. He was also charged with high misdemeanor for sending a military expedition against territories belonging to Spain. George Hay, the prosecuting U.S. Attorney, compiled a list of over 140 witnesses, one of whom was Andrew Jackson, who previously invited Burr to stay at his house when he was on the run. To encourage witnesses to cooperate with the prosecution, Thomas Jefferson gave Hay blank pardons containing Jefferson's signature and the discretion to issue them to all but "the grossest offenders"; Jefferson later amended these instructions to include even those the prosecution believed to be most culpable, if that meant the difference in convicting Burr.

Burr's trial brought into question the ideas of executive privilege, state secrets privilege, and the independence of the executive. Burr's lawyers, including John Wickham, asked Chief Justice John Marshall to subpoena Jefferson, claiming that they needed documents from Jefferson to present their case accurately. Jefferson proclaimed that, as president, he was "Reserving the necessary right of the President of the to decide, independently of all other authority, what papers, coming to him as President, the public interests permit to be communicated, & to whom." He insisted that all relevant papers had been made available, and that he was not subject to this writ because he held executive privilege. He also argued that he should not be subject to the commands of the judiciary, because the Constitution guaranteed the executive branch's independence from the judicial branch. Marshall decided that the subpoena could be issued despite Jefferson's position of presidency. Though Marshall vowed to consider Jefferson's office and avoid "vexatious and unnecessary subpoenas", his ruling was significant because it suggested that, like all citizens, the president was subject to the law.

Chief Justice Marshall had to consider the definition of treason and whether intent was sufficient for conviction, rather than action. Marshall ruled that because Burr had not committed an act of war, he could not be found guilty (see '' Ex parte Bollman''); the First Amendment guaranteed Burr the right to voice opposition to the government. To merely suggest war or to engage in a conspiracy was not enough. To be convicted of treason, Marshall ruled, an overt act of participation must be proven with evidence. Intention to divide the union was not an overt act: "There must be an actual assembling of men for the treasonable purpose, to constitute a levying of war." Marshall further supported his decision by indicating that the Constitution stated that two witnesses must see the same overt act against the country. Marshall narrowly construed the definition of treason provided in Article III of the Constitution; he noted that the prosecution had failed to prove that Burr had committed an "overt act" as the Constitution required. As a result, the jury acquitted the defendant.

Witness testimony was inconsistent, and one of the few witnesses to testify to an "overt act of treason", Jacob Allbright, perjured himself in the process. Allbright testified that militia General Edward Tupper raided Blennerhasset Island and attempted to arrest Harman Blennerhasset, but had been stopped by armed followers of Burr, who raised their weapons at Tupper to threaten him. In fact, Tupper had previously provided a deposition stating that when he visited the island, he had no arrest warrant, had not attempted to effect an arrest of anyone, had not been threatened, and had a pleasant visit with Blennerhasset.

The historians Nancy Isenberg and Andrew Burstein write that Burr "was not guilty of treason, nor was he ever convicted, because there was no evidence, not one credible piece of testimony, and the star witness for the prosecution had to admit that he had doctored a letter implicating Burr." In contrast, lawyer and author David O. Stewart concludes that Burr's intention included "acts that constituted the crime of treason, but that in the context of 1806, "the moral verdict is less clear." He points out that neither invasion of Spanish lands nor secession of American territory was considered treasonous by most Americans at the time, in view of the fluid boundaries of the American Southwest at that time, combined with the widespread expectation (shared by President Jefferson) that the United States might well divide into two nations.

Aftermath

Supreme Court Justice John Marshall's performance during the trial was closely monitored by Jefferson, who would have called for his impeachment had he been too hostile towards him or partial to Burr. While no impeachment was made, it was enough to cause two amendments to be brought up from some members of Congress, which would have allowed federal judges to be removed without relying on the impeachment process. Both of these amendments gained little support once proposed, so neither was approved.

Wilkinson's alteration of Burr's letter was clearly intended to minimize Wilkinson's culpability. His forgery and obviously self-serving testimony had the effect of making Burr seem to be the victim of an overzealous government. The grand jury nearly produced enough votes in favor of indicting Wilkinson for misprision of treason. The foreman, John Randolph said of Wilkinson that he was a "mammoth of iniquity", the "most finished scoundrel", and "the only man I ever saw who was from the bark to the very core a villain."

Blennerhassett's mansion and island had been occupied by the Virginia militia, which allegedly plundered the property. Blennerhassett fled with his family, was arrested twice, and remained in prison until Burr's acquittal. Afterward he moved to Mississippi to become a cotton planter. Later in life, he and his family moved to Montreal, Canada. Towards the end of his life, he went to Europe, where he lived until his death in Guernsey on February 2, 1831.

Though victorious in court, Burr lost in the court of public opinion. Effigies of him, the other conspirators, and Marshall were hanged all across the nation. Burr also was found in violation of the Neutrality Act, which in addition to the public outcry towards his acquittal, caused him to enter a self-imposed exile in Europe for protection. While there, Burr attempted to start a revolution in Mexico with help from England, which was denied. He went to France next, and reached out to Napoleon directly, but was also denied assistance. Defeated, Burr returned to the United States after four years overseas under the alias of M. Arnot. He resumed his law practice in New York until his death on September 14, 1836.

Legacy

Andrew Jackson's early affiliation with Burr followed him for the next 40 years. In 1842, a "Justitia" writing in the '' New-York American'' connected the Burr conspiracy and Jackson's association with Sam Houston, writing:

Footnotes

Primary sources

*"Aaron Burr and the Definition of Treason (1783–1815)." American Eras. 8 vols. Gale Research, 1997–1998. Student Resource Center. Thomson Gale.
*"The Aaron Burr Conspiracy (1800–1860)." American Eras. 8 vols. Gale Research, 1997–1998. Student Resource Center. Thomson Gale.
*American State Papers, 9th Congress, 2nd Session
**Miscellaneous: Volume 1, 468 pp, No. 217. Burr's Conspiracy.
**Miscellaneous: Volume 1, 478 pp, No. 223. Burr's Conspiracy – his arrest.
*"Burr's Conspiracy, 1805–1807." DISCovering U.S. History. Online Edition. Gale, 2003. Student Resource Center. Thomson Gale.
*''United States v. Burr'', 25 Fed. Cas. 30 (C.C.D. Va. 1807) (Opinion of Marshall, C.J.)

Further reading

* Barker, Joanne. "The Treason Trial of Aaron Burr: America's Would-be Caesar." ''Famous American Crimes and Trials: 1607–1859'' 1 (2004): 141+.
* Fisher, Louis. "The Law: Jefferson and the Burr Conspiracy: Executive Power against the Law." ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 45.1 (2015): 157–174
online
* Fruchtman, Jack. "Hero or Villain? The Treason Trial of Aaron Burr (1807)." in Michael T. Davis et al. eds. ''Political Trials in an Age of Revolutions'' (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2019). 297–319.
* Hobson, Charles F.
The Aaron Burr Treason Trial
'. (Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, College of William and Mary, 2006).
* Hoffer, Peter. ''The treason trials of Aaron Burr'' (U. Press of Kansas, 2008)
* Isenberg, Nancy. ''Fallen Founder: The Life of Aaron Burr''. (Penguin, 2007).
* Lewis Jr., James E. ''The Burr Conspiracy: Uncovering the Story of an Early American Crisis'' (2017

*McCaleb, Walter Flavius. ''Aaron Burr Conspiracy: A History from Original and Hitherto Unused Sources'' (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1903)
online
* Melton, Buckner, ''Aaron Burr, Conspiracy to Treason'', 2002,
* Stewart, David O. ''American Emperor: Aaron Burr's Challenge to Jefferson's America,'' New York: Simon & Schuster (2011).
* Wells, Colin. "'Aristocracy', Aaron Burr, and the Poetry of Conspiracy." ''Early American Literature'' 39.3 (2004): 553–576.

External links

*

{{DEFAULTSORT:Burr Conspiracy

1805 in American politics
1806 in American politics
1807 in American politics
1800s in Texas
United States Constitution Article Three case law
Political scandals in the United States
Conspiracies
Conspiracy
Jonathan Dayton
Presidency of Thomas Jefferson
Treason in the United States
Andrew Jackson
Southwest Territory