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Botanical illustration is the art of depicting the form, color, and details of plant species. They are generally meant to be scientifically descriptive about subjects depicted and are often found printed alongside a botanical description in books, magazines, and other media. Some are sold as artworks. Often composed by a botanical illustrator in consultation with a scientific author, their creation requires an understanding of
plant morphology Phytomorphology is the study of the physical form and external structure of plants.Raven, P. H., R. F. Evert, & S. E. Eichhorn. ''Biology of Plants'', 7th ed., page 9. (New York: W. H. Freeman, 2005). . This is usually considered distinct from pl ...
and access to specimens and references. Many illustrations are in
watercolour Watercolor (American English) or watercolour ( Commonwealth English; see spelling differences), also ''aquarelle'' (; from Italian diminutive of Latin 'water'), is a painting method"Watercolor may be as old as art itself, going back to the ...
, but may also be in oils, ink, or pencil, or a combination of these and other media. The image may be life-size or not, though at times a scale is shown, and may show the life cycle and/or habitat of the plant and its neighbors, the upper and reverse sides of leaves, and details of flowers, bud, seed and root system. The fragility of dried or otherwise preserved specimens, and restrictions or impracticalities of transport, saw illustrations used as valuable visual references for taxonomists. In particular, minute plants or other botanical specimens only visible under a microscope were often identified through illustrations. To that end, botanical illustrations used to be generally accepted as
types Type may refer to: Science and technology Computing * Typing, producing text via a keyboard, typewriter, etc. * Data type, collection of values used for computations. * File type * TYPE (DOS command), a command to display contents of a file. * Ty ...
for attribution of a
botanical name A botanical name is a formal scientific name conforming to the ''International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants'' (ICN) and, if it concerns a plant cultigen, the additional cultivar or cultivar group, Group epithets must conform t ...
to a
taxon In biology, a taxon (back-formation from ''taxonomy''; : taxa) is a group of one or more populations of an organism or organisms seen by taxonomists to form a unit. Although neither is required, a taxon is usually known by a particular name and ...
. However, current guidelines state that on or after 1 January 2007, the type must be a specimen 'except where there are technical difficulties of specimen preservation or if it is impossible to preserve a specimen that would show the features attributed to the taxon by the author of the name.' (Arts 40.4 and 40.5 of the Shenzen Code, 2018).


History


Up to the 15th century

Early herbals and
pharmacopoeia A pharmacopoeia, pharmacopeia, or pharmacopoea (or the typographically obsolete rendering, ''pharmacopœia''), meaning "drug-making", in its modern technical sense, is a reference work containing directions for the identification of compound med ...
of many cultures include illustrations of plants, as in Ibn al-Baytar's ''Compendium on Simple Medicaments and Foods''. Botanical illustrations in such texts were often created to assist with identification of a species for some medicinal purpose. The earliest surviving illustrated botanical work is the Vienna Dioscurides. It is a copy of
Dioscorides Pedanius Dioscorides (, ; 40–90 AD), "the father of pharmacognosy", was a Greek physician, pharmacologist, botanist, and author of (in the original , , both meaning "On Materia medica, Medical Material") , a 5-volume Greek encyclopedic phar ...
's , and was made in the year 512 for Juliana Anicia, daughter of the former Western Roman Emperor Olybrius. The illustrations did not accurately describe the plants, which was potentially hazardous to medicinal preparations. The oldest surviving manuscript of the 4th-century '' Pseudo-Apuleius Herbarius'', dates back to the 6th century. It includes stylized plant illustrations and their medicinal uses. Among the first people in Europe to take an interest in plants were monks and nuns, and physicians. Medicinal herbs were grown in monastic gardens and used for self-care and for tending to the sick in local communities.
Hildegard von Bingen Hildegard of Bingen OSB (, ; ; 17 September 1179), also known as the Sibyl of the Rhine, was a German Benedictine abbess and polymath active as a writer, composer, philosopher, mystic, visionary, and as a medical writer and practitioner ...
even wrote about natural medicine and cures in ''Causae et Curae'' and ''Physica''. Matthaeus Platearius, a Salerno physician, is credited with the (12th century) "" manuscript, expanded over time into the Treatise on Herbs, containing 500-900 entries depending on version. Later illustrated versions, called ''Secreta Salernitana'', produced from the 14th century onwards influenced later herbals, such as ''Le Grant Herbier'' (1498), and its translation, the Grete Herball (1526 or earlier), the first illustrated herbal in English. The illustrations were in fact copies of a series of
woodcuts Woodcut is a relief printing technique in printmaking. An artist carves an image into the surface of a block of wood—typically with Chisel#Gouge, gouges—leaving the printing parts level with the surface while removing the non-printing parts ...
which first appeared in an earlier German herbal, and the same woodcut could be used to represent several plants. Another notable medical and botanical manuscript is the "
Tacuinum Sanitatis The ''Taccuinum Sanitatis'' is a medieval handbook mainly on health aimed at a cultured lay audience. Originally an 11th-century Arab medical treatise composed by Ibn Butlan of Baghdad under the name of ''Taqwīm aṣ‑Ṣiḥḥa'' (). In the ...
", derived from the ''Taqwīm aṣ Ṣiḥḥa'' (or "Maintenance of Health"), an 11th-century Arabic medical text by Ibn Butlan, a physician from Baghdad. The text was translated into Latin in the mid-13th century. It was profusely illustrated and widely circulated in Europe, especially in the 14th and 15th centuries. Four handsomely illustrated complete late 14th-century manuscripts of the Tacuinum, all produced in Lombardy, survive, including one in Paris. The Tacuinum was first printed in 1531. There are many perfectly identifiable flowers in books like ''The Book of Hours'' (two volumes) by the Master of Flowers (Maître-aux-fleurs, 15th century) or Jean Bourdichon's ''
Grandes Heures of Anne of Brittany The Grandes Heures of Anne of Brittany (''Les Grandes Heures d'Anne de Bretagne'' in French) is a Book of Hours, book of hours, commissioned by Anne of Brittany, Queen of France to two kings in succession, and Illuminated manuscript, illuminated ...
'' (between 1503 and 1508), with 337 plants from the Queen's garden, captioned in Latin and French. These artists' objective was, though, purely artistic. At the end of the 16th century, an illustrated manuscript such as the ''Erbario Carrarese'' (
British Library The British Library is the national library of the United Kingdom. Based in London, it is one of the largest libraries in the world, with an estimated collection of between 170 and 200 million items from multiple countries. As a legal deposit li ...
, London, Egerton Ms.2020), revealed the increased importance attached to plant observation. It is an Italian translation (produced in Veneto between 1390 and 1404 for Francesco Novello da Carrara) of a Latin translation of the ''Carrara Herbarium'', a medical treatise likely written in Arabic by Serapion the Younger at the end of the 12th century, ''The Book of Simple Medicaments''. made great strides from the end of the 15th century onwards. 's approach was scientific. Like Bourdichon, he was a miniature painter (who was born in Venice and died after 1450) but he illustrated a book written by a physician and scholar from Conegliano, Nicolò Roccabonella (1386–1459), the ''Liber de Simplicibus'' (known as the Codice Rinio, after the name of its second owner, Benedetto Rinio), between 1415 and 1449. Printed herbals appeared in 1475 ; in 1485 '' Gart der Gesundheit'', by Johannes de Cuba, was published in
Mainz Mainz (; #Names and etymology, see below) is the capital and largest city of the German state of Rhineland-Palatinate, and with around 223,000 inhabitants, it is List of cities in Germany by population, Germany's 35th-largest city. It lies in ...
: it is the first printed book on natural history.


Sixteenth century

In the 15th and 16th centuries, botany developed as a scientific discipline distinct from
herbalism Herbal medicine (also called herbalism, phytomedicine or phytotherapy) is the study of pharmacognosy and the use of medicinal plants, which are a basis of traditional medicine. Scientific evidence for the effectiveness of many herbal treatments ...
and medicine, although it continued to contribute to both. Several factors contributed to the development and progress of botany during these centuries: the evolution from miniature painting or
woodblock printing Woodblock printing or block printing is a technique for printing text, images or patterns used widely throughout East Asia and originating in China in antiquity as a method of textile printing, printing on textiles and later on paper. Each page ...
to more modern techniques; the invention (and improvements) of the
printing Printing is a process for mass reproducing text and images using a master form or template. The earliest non-paper products involving printing include cylinder seals and objects such as the Cyrus Cylinder and the Cylinders of Nabonidus. The ...
press, which facilitated the widespread dissemination of botanical knowledge; the advent of paper for the preparation of herbariums; and the development of botanical gardens, which allowed for the cultivation, observation, and study of plants from diverse regions. These developments were closely tied to advancements in navigation and exploration, which led to botanical expeditions that introduced numerous previously unknown species to Europe. As explorers and botanists traveled to new lands, they collected plants and expanded both the scope of botanical knowledge and the range of plants available. Together, these factors significantly increased the number of known plant species and facilitated the global exchange of local and regional botanical knowledge. During this period, Latin remained the universal language of science, ensuring that botanical discoveries could be shared and understood across national and linguistic boundaries. Christian Egenolff attached great importance to the illustrations included in the books he published: ''Herbarum, arborum, fruticum, frumentorum ac leguminem'' (Frankfurt, 1546) features 800 woodcuts of plants and animals. Some of the woodcuts used were engraved by Sebald Beham, Heinrich Steiner and Heinrich Köbel while others were reproduced from Otto Brunfels and engraver Hans Weiditz 's ''Herbarium vivae icones'' (Botanical Sketch Book, with hand-coloured
woodcuts Woodcut is a relief printing technique in printmaking. An artist carves an image into the surface of a block of wood—typically with Chisel#Gouge, gouges—leaving the printing parts level with the surface while removing the non-printing parts ...
), which prompted Johannes Schott, the printer, to take legal action against him. From 1530 onwards (and thanks particularly to German herbalists appeared the first books illustrated with woodcuts based on direct observation of live plants, as opposed to relying on older, often incorrect depictions from ancient texts. Such works included those by Otto Brunfels, illustrated by Hans Weiditz: ''Herbarum vivae eicones'' ("Living Images of Plants", 1530–1536, in three parts) and ''Contrafayt Kräuterbuch'' (1532–1537, in two parts). In 1533 the first chair of botany in Europe was established in Padua.
Luca Ghini Luca Ghini ( Casalfiumanese, 1490 – Bologna, 4 May 1556) was an Italian physician and botanist, notable as the creator of the first recorded herbarium, as well as the first botanical garden in Europe. Biography Ghini was born in Casalfiumanese ...
, an Italian physician and botanist, founded the Orto botanico di Pisa (Europe's first university botanical garden) in 1544 with the support of
Cosimo I de' Medici Cosimo I de' Medici (12 June 1519 – 21 April 1574) was the second and last duke of Florence from 1537 until 1569, when he became the first grand duke of Tuscany, a title he held until his death. Cosimo I succeeded his cousin to the duchy. ...
and published his first herbarium that same year. He is credited with inventing the
herbarium A herbarium (plural: herbaria) is a collection of preserved plant biological specimen, specimens and associated data used for scientific study. The specimens may be whole plants or plant parts; these will usually be in dried form mounted on a sh ...
(known as "hortus siccus", dried garden), around 1520 or 1530. His compatriot Ulisse Aldrovandi compiled one of the first floras in the mid-16th century.
Jacopo Ligozzi Jacopo Ligozzi (1547–1627) was an Italian painter, illustrator, designer, and miniaturist. His art can be categorized as late-Renaissance and Mannerism, Mannerist styles. Biography Born in Verona, he was the son of the artist Giovanni Erma ...
worked for both Ghini and Aldovrandi. Pietro Andrea Mattioli's botanical masterpiece was his ''Commentarii in libros sex Pedacii Dioscoridis'', first published in Italian in 1544 with 500, and later 1,200 engravings. This work made a profound impression on the botanist Gherardo Cibo, who then illustrated some of the plants featured in Mattioli's work (with roots, flowers and fruit) in close-up set against a backdrop of a real (often inhabited) landscape depicting their natural environment. Many of the illustrations also feature two little botanists collecting specimens of the plant illustrated. The work (Pietro Andrea Mattioli, ''Discorsi, a herbal assembled and illustrated by Gherardo Cibo''), dated 1564–1584, is accessible for online viewing on the British Library website. See the Gherardo Cibo page on Wikipedia in Latin for two more illustrations). Euricius Cordus, one of the founders of botany in Germany, wrote the ''Botanologicon'' (1534) and his son, Valerius Cordus (1515–1544), was the author of very important works such as the ''Historia stirpium libri V'' (1561), published after his death, in which 502 species are described. Like his father, he relied on systematic observation of many of the same plants described by
Pedanius Dioscorides Pedanius Dioscorides (, ; 40–90 AD), "the father of pharmacognosy", was a Greek physician, pharmacologist, botanist, and author of (in the original , , both meaning "On Medical Material") , a 5-volume Greek encyclopedic pharmacopeia on he ...
. The Swiss naturalist
Conrad Gessner Conrad Gessner (; ; 26 March 1516 – 13 December 1565) was a Swiss physician, naturalist, bibliographer, and philologist. Born into a poor family in Zürich, Switzerland, his father and teachers quickly realised his talents and supported him t ...
devoted much of his life to the study of botany. He published two works in 1541 and 1542, but the remainder of his botanical writings were not published until the middle of the 18th century. The woodcuts that illustrated them were often reused, depicting plants with their roots, flowers and seeds. According to Christine Velut, "specialists agree in attributing the first illustrated plate of tulips to K. Gesner's ''De Hortis Germaniae Liber''... published in 1561". Hieronymus Bock developed his own system to classify 700 plants. Bock also seems to have observed the plants for himself, since he includes ecological and distributional observations. His ''Kreuterbuch von Underscheidt, Würckung und Namen der Kreuter, so in teutschen Landen wachsen'' (1546), written in German, was illustrated by David Kandel. The
Age of Discovery The Age of Discovery (), also known as the Age of Exploration, was part of the early modern period and overlapped with the Age of Sail. It was a period from approximately the 15th to the 17th century, during which Seamanship, seafarers fro ...
and the introduction of as yet unknown plant species (and other wonders of nature) in Europe sparked a great interest in nature. This led to the accumulation of specimens (in cabinets of curiosities and botanical gardens), their classification, the creation of catalogues, botanical works, and the emergence of scientific illustration. The passion for
horticulture Horticulture (from ) is the art and science of growing fruits, vegetables, flowers, trees, shrubs and ornamental plants. Horticulture is commonly associated with the more professional and technical aspects of plant cultivation on a smaller and mo ...
created a market for floral
still life A still life (: still lifes) is a work of art depicting mostly wikt:inanimate, inanimate subject matter, typically commonplace objects which are either natural (food, flowers, dead animals, plants, rocks, shells, etc.) or artificiality, human-m ...
s (painted for aesthetic purposes) and for more scientific miniatures. The '' Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis'' is an Aztec manuscript describing the medicinal properties of various plants used by the Aztecs. It gives the
Nahuatl Nahuatl ( ; ), Aztec, or Mexicano is a language or, by some definitions, a group of languages of the Uto-Aztecan language family. Varieties of Nahuatl are spoken by about Nahuas, most of whom live mainly in Central Mexico and have smaller popul ...
names of the plants and includes an illustration. The '' Florentine Codex'', an encyclopaedia of the Aztec world dating from the mid 16th century, includes a Nahuatl text, a Spanish text and illustrations. Book 11 is a treatise on natural history. In the 1570s,
Francisco Hernández de Toledo Francisco Hernández de Toledo (c. 1515 – 28 January 1587) was a naturalist and court physician to Philip II of Spain. He was among the first wave of Spanish Renaissance physicians practicing according to the revived principles formulated by Hipp ...
embarked on the first scientific mission in the New World (and particularly
New Spain New Spain, officially the Viceroyalty of New Spain ( ; Nahuatl: ''Yankwik Kaxtillan Birreiyotl''), originally the Kingdom of New Spain, was an integral territorial entity of the Spanish Empire, established by Habsburg Spain. It was one of several ...
), a study of the region's medicinal plants and animals, and brought back thousands of illustrations for which he was assisted by local artists, "s". It was to the Levant that Pierre Belon undertook extensive scientific travels to study fauna and botany. The work that he published in 1553 includes some illustrations.
Leonhart Fuchs Leonhart Fuchs (; 17 January 1501 – 10 May 1566), sometimes spelled Leonhard Fuchs and cited in Latin as ''Leonhartus Fuchsius'', was a German physician and botanist. His chief notability is as the author of a large book about plants and thei ...
published '' De historia stirpium commentarii insignes'' (1542), accompanied by illustrations at least as accurate as those by Hans Weiditz. The drawings are by Albrecht Meyer and the engravings by Veit Rudolph Speckle. Fuchs included ornamental plants and plants brought back from the Americas, and had the whole plants, including roots, flowers and fruits, illustrated from life so that they could be identified. His work was reprinted many times and in several languages. The engravings were also widely reused. The book named the contributing artists and included their portraits. One way of copying precisely was offered by the Herbarium vivum: images were made by pressing ink-coated objects onto paper, leaving impressions; earlier methods used carbon black from soot. Impressions from dried plant materials could then be painted over in colour, pieces too bulky for pressing could be painted or drawn. Hieronymus Harder started a Herbarium vivum which reached 12 volumes, starting in 1562. Henrik Bernard Oldenland, a
Cape Colony The Cape Colony (), also known as the Cape of Good Hope, was a British Empire, British colony in present-day South Africa named after the Cape of Good Hope. It existed from 1795 to 1802, and again from 1806 to 1910, when it united with three ...
botanist assembled a Herbarium vivum of some 13 volumes at the end of the 17th c. Johann Hieronymus Kniphof's Herbarium Vivum of 1759 comprises some 1,200 botanical illustrations. In 1834 the astronomer John Herschel, faced with a similar problem of exact copying, used a camera lucida to copy the outlines of Cape Colony plants in pencil while his wife later painted the details. There are two illustrations on Wikipedia in Spanish. The Flemish painter Pieter van der Borcht the Elder was one of the first to work in the new medium of copperplate engraving and
etching Etching is traditionally the process of using strong acid or mordant to cut into the unprotected parts of a metal surface to create a design in intaglio (incised) in the metal. In modern manufacturing, other chemicals may be used on other type ...
that came into use after 1564. Woodcuts (like wood engravings, much later) allowed in-text illustrations, unlike intaglio processes. Van der Borcht began illustrating botanical works in 1565, when the Antwerp printer
Christophe Plantin Christophe Plantin (; – 1 July 1589) was a French Renaissance humanist and book Printer (publisher), printer and publisher who resided and worked in Antwerp. He established in Antwerp one of the most prominent publishing houses of his time, th ...
commissioned plates from him for the herbarium of
Rembert Dodoens Rembert Dodoens (born Rembert van Joenckema, 29 June 1517 – 10 March 1585) was a Flemish people, Flemish physician and botanist, also known under his Latinization (literature), Latinized name Rembertus Dodonaeus. He has been called the father o ...
. Further commissions (more than 3000 watercolours in all, engraved by Arnold Nicolaï, then Gerard van Kampen and Cornelis Muller) followed for works by Dodoens,
Matthias de l'Obel Mathias de l'Obel, Mathias de Lobel or Matthaeus Lobelius (1538 – 3 March 1616) was a Flemish physician and plant enthusiast who was born in Lille, Flanders, in what is now Hauts-de-France, France, and died at Highgate, London, England. H ...
and Carolus Clusius (a pupil of Guillaume Rondelet, like
Gaspard Bauhin Gaspard Bauhin or Caspar Bauhin (; 17 January 1560 – 5 December 1624), was a Switzerland, Swiss botanist whose ''Pinax theatri botanici'' (1623) described thousands of plants and classified them in a manner that draws comparisons to the later ...
as well as Rabelais. Pierre Richer de Belleval was one of Rondelet's successors in Montpellier). Dodoens' ''Florum, coronariarum odoratarumque nonnullarum herbarum historia'' published by Plantin (1568) offers a description of ornamental flowers with engravings showing the whole plant (from flower to root). One whole chapter is devoted to tulips. In France, Jacques Daléchamps's ''Historia generalis plantarum'' (1586) is a compilation of all the botanical knowledge of his time, lavishly illustrated with engravings. Carolus Clusius, a French-speaking Flemish physician and botanist, created one of the first botanical gardens in Europe, the Hortus botanicus Leiden, and can be considered the world's first mycologist and the founder of horticulture, particularly of the tulip (of which he obtained seeds from Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq). He was also the first to give truly scientific descriptions of plants. He translated the works of Dodoens. ''Rariorum plantarum historia'' (published by Plantin in 1601) is a compilation of works on botany published earlier and has a pioneering mycological study on mushrooms from Central Europe.
Joris Hoefnagel Joris Hoefnagel or Georg Hoefnagel (1542, in Antwerp – 24 July 1601, in Vienna) was a Southern Netherlands, Flemish painter, printmaker, Miniature (illuminated manuscript), miniaturist, draftsman and merchant. He is noted for his illustrat ...
was a Flemish illuminator who belonged to the transitional period between medieval illumination and Renaissance still-life painting. He is known for his accurate representations of fruits, flowers and animals, which were taken as models by many other artists in the following centuries. Hoefnagel is also known to have painted birds (notably an illustration of the dodo) while working for the court of Emperor
Rudolf II Rudolf II (18 July 1552 – 20 January 1612) was Holy Roman Emperor (1576–1612), King of Hungary and Croatia (as Rudolf I, 1572–1608), King of Bohemia (1575–1608/1611) and Archduke of Austria (1576–1608). He was a member of the H ...
, famous for his cabinet of curiosities. His ''Amoris Monumentum Matri Charissimae'' (1589) shows a floral arrangement that seems to have been perceived at the precise moment when
butterflies Butterflies are winged insects from the lepidopteran superfamily Papilionoidea, characterized by large, often brightly coloured wings that often fold together when at rest, and a conspicuous, fluttering flight. The oldest butterfly fossi ...
, caterpillars and snails appeared. The idea was often taken up again. His ''Archetypa studiaque patris Georgii Hoefnagelii'' (published by his son Jacob, in Frankfurt, in 1592) contains 48 engravings by Jacob (and perhaps
Theodor de Bry Theodor de Bry (also Theodorus de Bry) (152827 March 1598) was an engraver, goldsmith, Editing, editor and publisher, famous for his depictions of early European colonization of the Americas, European expeditions to the Americas. The Spanish In ...
or his son) based on studies that seem to have been made from life by Joris (who, according to
Filippo Bonanni Filippo Bonanni; S.J. or Buonanni (7 January 1638 – 30 March 1723) was an Italian Jesuit scholar. His many works included treatises on fields ranging from anatomy to music. He created the earliest practical illustrated guide for shell collector ...
, had used a microscope).


Seventeenth century

Theodor de Bry Theodor de Bry (also Theodorus de Bry) (152827 March 1598) was an engraver, goldsmith, Editing, editor and publisher, famous for his depictions of early European colonization of the Americas, European expeditions to the Americas. The Spanish In ...
, draughtsman and engraver, published his ''Florilegium novum'' in 1612, consisting of 116 plates representing, as the full title emphasises, flowers and plants, with their roots and bulbs, engraved from nature. It appears that at least some of the plates were borrowed from Pierre Vallet (c. 1575–1657), engraver and embroiderer to Kings Henri IV and Louis XIII, who himself published two florilèges: ''Le Jardin du roy tres chrestien Henri IV'' (1608) and ''Le Jardin du roy tres chrestien Loys XIII'' (1623). Some of the plates are beautifully hand-colored. Both books were made for "those who wish to paint or illuminate, embroider or make tapestries". Johann Theodor de Bry greatly assisted his father. With the assistance of Matthäus Merian der Ältere he later published ''Florilegium renovatum et auctum'', also known as ''Anthologia Magna'' (1641), an expanded version with 177 engraved plates. Emanuel Sweerts, a tulip collector, published another florilegium: ''Florilegium by Emanuel Sweerts of Zevenbergen, living in Amsterdam ..showing various flowers and other plants, in two parts, drawn from nature and rendered in four languages (Latin, German, French and Dutch)''. The first part is devoted to 67 bulb plants (32 varieties of tulips), and the second to 43 perennial plants. Each plate (all borrowed from de Bry's ''Florilegium'') is numbered and refers to an index in which its name appears. The 1612 edition includes a preface in which the author gives the two addresses where tulips can be bought, in Frankfurt and Amsterdam : botanical illustration suddenly found a new outlet in the production of nursery catalogues. '' Hortus Eystettensis'' (1613) is a "cabinet book" and, more precisely, a florilegium: it contains engravings of the plants grown in the garden created by the botanist Basilius Besler at the request of the Prince-Bishop of Eichstätt. The 367 engravings, mostly by Wolfgang Kilian, were designed to be painted, if necessary. (1564–1637) and mostly (or only) his son Crispijn van de Passe the Younger (1594/1595-1670) published their ''Hortus Floridus'' in Utrecht from 1614 onwards. This is an engraved florilegium of more than a hundred unusual or rare plants, accurately depicted and classified according to their flowering season. The first plates show two views of a Dutch garden. In 1616 was published ''Jardin d'hyver'', or ''Cabinet des fleurs, containing in 26 elegies the rarest and most signal flowers of the most beautiful flowerbeds. Illustrated with excellent figures representing the most beautiful flowers of domestic gardens in their natural state (in particular anemones and tulips)... By Jean Franeau''. The work included an initial index and engravings by Antoine Serrurier. The flowers most prized by 'florists' (garden lovers) are presented in the order of the seasons, starting with spring. (Herbaria were called "hortus hyemale" or "hiemale" in Latin ('winter garden'), or "hortus siccus" ('dry garden'), and did not take on this name until the 18th century). In 1631 the great era of " Les Vélins du Roi" began. At the same time, the idea of the (private)
pleasure garden A pleasure garden is a park or garden that is open to the public for recreation and entertainment. Pleasure gardens differ from other public gardens by serving as venues for entertainment, variously featuring such attractions as concert halls, b ...
, which originated in Italy, was brought to France during the great period of
Hôtel particulier () is the French term for a grand urban mansion, comparable to a Townhouse (Great Britain), British townhouse. Whereas an ordinary (house) was built as part of a row, sharing party walls with the houses on either side and directly fronting on a ...
construction, mainly in Paris from the early 17th century onwards. These freestanding mansions were often built between an entrance court (on the street side) and a pleasure garden overlooking the private apartments. The Hôtel Lambert, built in 1640, had a terraced garden. " Follies" (summer houses) such as the (built from 1633 to 1635) had extensive 'pleasure gardens' to which André Mollet dedicated a book: ''Le Jardin de plaisir, contenant plusieurs desseins de jardinage'' (''The Pleasure Garden, containing several garden designs''), 1651. ''Pinax theatri botanici'' (Illustrated Exposition of Plants, Basel, 1623) by Swiss botanist
Gaspard Bauhin Gaspard Bauhin or Caspar Bauhin (; 17 January 1560 – 5 December 1624), was a Switzerland, Swiss botanist whose ''Pinax theatri botanici'' (1623) described thousands of plants and classified them in a manner that draws comparisons to the later ...
stands as one of the highest expressions of Renaissance European herbals. It describes thousands of plants and classifies them in a manner that foreshadowed the
binomial nomenclature In taxonomy, binomial nomenclature ("two-term naming system"), also called binary nomenclature, is a formal system of naming species of living things by giving each a name composed of two parts, both of which use Latin grammatical forms, altho ...
later developed by Linnaeus. Later editions were illustrated. Johannes Bodaeus van Stapel helped revive and disseminate ancient botanical knowledge when he published '' Theophrastus' Historia Plantarum'' (c. 350 BC – c. 287 BC) in Amsterdam in 1644. It was not only a translation as he added his own commentary and annotations as well as detailed illustrations of plants.
Balthasar Moncornet Balthasar Moncornet (1600, Rouen – 1668, Paris) was a French painter, Engraving, engraver, and Tapestry, tapissier revered for his depictions of around 45 different prominent figures of the 17th century. Gallery of selected portraits File:He ...
published a number of works for ornamentalists, including ''Livre nouveau de fleurs très util pour l'art d'orfèvrerie et autres'' (a new book of flowers, very useful for the art of goldsmithing and others, Paris, 1645). When in the 17th century, tulipomania swept through Holland, the commerce of tulips, along with the instability of their colors, provided additional incentive to have them painted. A book created in 1634 for Nicolaes Tulp contains over a hundred pages of tulips (along with insects and
Mollusc shell The mollusc (or mollusk) shell is typically a calcareous exoskeleton which encloses, supports and protects the soft parts of an animal in the phylum Mollusca, which includes snails, clams, tusk shells, and several other classes. Not all shelled ...
s) painted by Jacob Marrel.
Tulip mania Tulip mania () was a period during the Dutch Golden Age when contract prices for some bulbs of the recently introduced and fashionable tulip reached extraordinarily high levels. The major acceleration started in 1634 and then dramatically co ...
continued beyond the collapse of the market in 1637. In 1650 Jean Le Clerc (15..-163.), bookseller, publisher and engraver, published his ''Livre de fleurs où sont représentées toutes sortes de tulippes'' (Paris). Charles de La Chesnée-Monstereul followed suit with a book devoted entirely to tulips, ''Le Floriste françois'' (Caen, 1654). And in 1678, he published a ''Traité des tulipes''. Nicolas Guillaume de La Fleur (1608–1663), an engraver, painter and draughtsman from Lorraine, is known to have engraved flower plates in Rome in 1638-39 (published by Frederick de Wit, Amsterdam, 1650–1706), and to have worked in Paris c.1644. Painter later recommended that those who wish to learn to paint flowers should copy his engravings: "Buy Nicolas-Guillaume la Fleur's ''Fleurs'', which are sold at Mariette, ruë Saint-Jacques, at l'Espérance. They are very good." This suggests that there was a market for such books. On his return to his estates in Idstein around 1646, John, Count of Nassau-Idstein built up a large cabinet of curiosities, had a garden laid out for himself, and invited Johann Jakob Walther to paint it: ''Le florilège dit de Nassau-Idstein'', painted between 1654 and 1672, comprises 42 miniatures on vellum of flowers (familiar or exotic) and fruits, and views of the garden with beds in the shape of fruit. He was also the great-uncle of the painter , author of a ''Herbier du Bas-Rhin'' (1795). The growing need for European naturalists to exchange ideas and information led to the creation of the first scientific academies, such as the
Accademia dei Lincei The (; literally the "Academy of the Lynx-Eyed"), anglicised as the Lincean Academy, is one of the oldest and most prestigious European scientific institutions, located at the Palazzo Corsini on the Via della Lungara in Rome, Italy. Founded in ...
(Italy, 1603), the
Royal Society The Royal Society, formally The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, is a learned society and the United Kingdom's national academy of sciences. The society fulfils a number of roles: promoting science and its benefits, re ...
(1660), and the
French Academy of Sciences The French Academy of Sciences (, ) is a learned society, founded in 1666 by Louis XIV at the suggestion of Jean-Baptiste Colbert, to encourage and protect the spirit of French Scientific method, scientific research. It was at the forefron ...
(1666). Denis Dodart (1634–1707), who oversaw the studies of the French Academy of Sciences from 1670 to 1694, played a pivotal role in the publication of ''Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire des plantes'' in 1676. This work proposed the creation of a comprehensive (and illustrated) catalogue of plant species.
Joachim Jungius Joachim Jungius (born Joachim Junge; 22 October 1587 – 23 September 1657) was a German mathematician, logician and philosopher of science. Life Jungius was a native of Lübeck. He studied metaphysics at the Universities of University of Ro ...
was the first scientist to combine a philosophical mindset with precise observation of plants. For him, rigorous botanical terminology was essential, thus reducing the use of vague or arbitrary terminology in
systematics Systematics is the study of the diversification of living forms, both past and present, and the relationships among living things through time. Relationships are visualized as evolutionary trees (synonyms: phylogenetic trees, phylogenies). Phy ...
. Jungius's ''Doxoscopia'' (1662) and ''Isagoge phytoscopica'' (Introduction to the study of plants, 1679) were published posthumously. His botanical theories were far ahead of their time and had little influence during his lifetime. It was
John Ray John Ray Fellow of the Royal Society, FRS (November 29, 1627 – January 17, 1705) was a Christian England, English Natural history, naturalist widely regarded as one of the earliest of the English parson-naturalists. Until 1670, he wrote his ...
who brought them to light by applying them to his own botanical classification work, and, through Ray,
Carl von Linné Carl Linnaeus (23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linné, Blunt (2004), p. 171. was a Swedish biologist and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, the modern system of naming organi ...
eventually incorporated them into his own system. Jacob Marrel's stepdaughter Maria Sibylla Merian, who published her first book in 1675, included insects in her floral pictures. ''Metamorphosis insectorum Surinamensium'' (1705) showed caterpillars and the plants to which they are attached. Her daughters
Rachel Ruysch Rachel Ruysch (3 June 1664 – 12 October 1750) was a Dutch still-life painter from the Northern Netherlands. She specialized in flowers, inventing her own style and achieving international fame in her lifetime. Due to a long and successful car ...
and Dorothea Maria Graff were also flower painters. The most important work on plant
systematics Systematics is the study of the diversification of living forms, both past and present, and the relationships among living things through time. Relationships are visualized as evolutionary trees (synonyms: phylogenetic trees, phylogenies). Phy ...
in the 17th century was the Historia generalis plantarum ('The General History of Plants', 1686) by John Ray (1627–1705), on which Linnaeus based his work and whom he proclaimed the 'founder' of systematics. The botanist and draughtsman Charles Plumier, who made four botanical expeditions (the first one in 1689), brought back a (now lost) herbarium and many drawings: ''Description des plantes de l'Amérique'' was published after the second voyage (1693), and ''Nova plantarum americanarum genera'' (1703) after the third. These works include plates showing flowers and fruits at different stages of development. A few decades earlier, '' Flora Sinensis'' (Vienna, 1656) had been published by a Jesuit missionary,
Michał Boym Michał Piotr Boym, SJ ( zh, c=卜彌格, p= Bǔ Mígé;Transliterated also (using Wade-Giles) as ''Pu Che-yuen Mi-ko'' c. 1612 – 1659) was a Polish Jesuits, Jesuit missionary to China, scientist and explorer. He was an early Western traveller w ...
. At the end of the 17th century, the first manuals for amateur painters appeared: in 1679, published ''École de la mignature : Dans laquelle on peut facilement apprendre à peindre sans maître'' (Miniature art school: where you can easily learn to paint without a master'.). Chapters 88 and following are dedicated to the painting of flowers. The idea for the manual was taken up by a former pupil of Nicolas Robert, , received at the
Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture The Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture (; ) was founded in 1648 in Paris, France. It was the premier art institution of France during the latter part of the Ancien Régime until it was abolished in 1793 during the French Revolution. I ...
(1682): ''The Royal Lessons, or the Method of Painting Miniatures of Flowers and Birds, based on an Explanation of the Books on Flowers and Birds by the late Nicolas Robert, Flower painter'' (1686), recommends (Preface and Chapter I) imitating Robert's works rather than those of one "Baptiste de la Fleur", presumably a nickname for rising star Jean-Baptiste Monnoyer whose ''Le Livre de toutes sortes de fleurs d'après nature'' shows flowers with botanical accuracy and served decorative designers for decades.
Joseph Pitton de Tournefort Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (5 June 165628 December 1708) was a French botanist, notable as the first to make a clear definition of the concept of genus for plants. Botanist Charles Plumier was his pupil and accompanied him on his voyages. Li ...
published his first work, ''Éléments de botanique ou méthode pour connaître les plantes'', in 1694. In the preliminary notice, he noted that "the method followed is based on the structure of flowers and fruits. One cannot depart from it without getting into strange difficulties...". The book, illustrated with 451 excellent plates by Claude Aubriet, was an immediate success. Tournefort himself translated it into Latin as ''Institutiones rei herbariae'' as the use of Latin was still necessary to ensure a wide readership throughout Europe. He introduced a sophisticated hierarchy of classes, sections, genera and species, and was the first to systematically use a
polynomial In mathematics, a polynomial is a Expression (mathematics), mathematical expression consisting of indeterminate (variable), indeterminates (also called variable (mathematics), variables) and coefficients, that involves only the operations of addit ...
nomenclature. Towards the end of the 17th century, the first microscopic observations of plants were made and the study of
plant anatomy Plant anatomy or phytotomy is the general term for the study of the internal Anatomy, structure of plants. Originally, it included plant morphology, the description of the physical form and external structure of plants, but since the mid-20th centu ...
developed rapidly, which was to have a major influence on later classifications. Robert Hooke's ''
Micrographia ''Micrographia: or Some Physiological Descriptions of Minute Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses. With Observations and Inquiries Thereupon'' is a historically significant book by Robert Hooke about his observations through various lenses. It wa ...
'', (1667), contains a large number of observations made with the
microscope A microscope () is a laboratory equipment, laboratory instrument used to examine objects that are too small to be seen by the naked eye. Microscopy is the science of investigating small objects and structures using a microscope. Microscopic ...
. Modern
plant pathology Plant pathology or phytopathology is the scientific study of plant diseases caused by pathogens (infectious organisms) and environmental conditions (physiological factors). Plant pathology involves the study of pathogen identification, disease ...
started with Robert Hooke illustrating a fungal disease, rose rust (1665).
Marcello Malpighi Marcello Malpighi (10 March 1628 – 30 November 1694) was an Italians, Italian biologist and physician, who is referred to as the "founder of microscopical anatomy, histology and father of physiology and embryology". Malpighi's name is borne by ...
used the microscope to study the anatomy of all kinds of organisms; his work, ''Anatomia Plantarum'' (1675), contains studies of plant anatomy and systematic descriptions of the different parts of plants.
Nehemiah Grew Nehemiah Grew (26 September 164125 March 1712) was an English plant anatomist and physiologist, known as the "Father of Plant Anatomy". Biography Grew was the only son of Obadiah Grew (1607–1688), Nonconformist divine and vicar of St Mi ...
's ''The Anatomy of Plants'' (1682) displays detailed anatomical diagrams and cross sections of flowers and other plant structures, including the first known microscopic description of pollen. This makes it all the more curious to see that Abraham Munting's best known work, ''Naauwkeurige Beschryving Der Aardgewassen'' (Description of Terrestrial Plants, 1696), shows plants against a background of classic or pastoral landscapes. His ''Phytographia curiosa'', 1702, also has inhabited landscapes in the background, reminiscent of the work of Gherardo Cibo at the end of the 16th century.


18th century

After the emergence of
plant anatomy Plant anatomy or phytotomy is the general term for the study of the internal Anatomy, structure of plants. Originally, it included plant morphology, the description of the physical form and external structure of plants, but since the mid-20th centu ...
in the 17th, the 18th century saw that of
plant physiology Plant physiology is a subdiscipline of botany concerned with the functioning, or physiology, of plants. Plant physiologists study fundamental processes of plants, such as photosynthesis, respiration, plant nutrition, plant hormone functions, tr ...
, which has since had a profound influence on the development of all areas of botany.
Stephen Hales Stephen Hales (17 September 16774 January 1761) was an English clergyman who made major contributions to a range of scientific fields including botany, pneumatic chemistry and physiology. He was the first person to measure blood pressure. He al ...
is considered the father of plant physiology for his many experiments in ' (1727). As for
Carl Linnaeus Carl Linnaeus (23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linné,#Blunt, Blunt (2004), p. 171. was a Swedish biologist and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, the modern system of naming o ...
, he is widely recognized as the father of modern
botanical nomenclature Botanical nomenclature is the formal, scientific naming of plants. It is related to, but distinct from taxonomy (biology), taxonomy. Plant taxonomy is concerned with grouping and classifying plants; Botany, botanical nomenclature then provides na ...
. Linnaeus introduced several key innovations in taxinomy. First, he applied binomial nomenclature, assigning each species a two-part Latin name, while also emphasizing detailed morphological characterization. This system allowed for clearer, more systematic classification. Additionally, he implemented a precise terminology for describing
plant morphology Phytomorphology is the study of the physical form and external structure of plants.Raven, P. H., R. F. Evert, & S. E. Eichhorn. ''Biology of Plants'', 7th ed., page 9. (New York: W. H. Freeman, 2005). . This is usually considered distinct from pl ...
, especially floral and fruit structures. Building on Jungius's work, Linnaeus carefully defined terms that became standard in botanical descriptions. Through his major works—''
Systema Naturae ' (originally in Latin written ' with the Orthographic ligature, ligature æ) is one of the major works of the Sweden, Swedish botanist, zoologist and physician Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) and introduced the Linnaean taxonomy. Although the syste ...
'' (1735) and "
Species Plantarum ' (Latin for "The Species of Plants") is a book by Carl Linnaeus, originally published in 1753, which lists every species of plant known at the time, classified into genus, genera. It is the first work to consistently apply binomial nomenclature ...
" (1753), —he revolutionized taxonomy, creating a framework still used today. In '' Hortus Cliffortianus'' (1737), a collaboration between Linnaeus and the illustrator Georg Dionysius Ehret, he described 2536 genres et espèces de plantes. He organised their list according to the system he had established in the ''Specis Plantarum'' and in the ''Systema Naturae''. To name the plants, he relied on his '' Critica Botanica''. Ehret used many "exploded details" showing intricate dissections As botanical nomenclature became more structured and taxonomic classifications were regularly documented in scientific publications, botanical illustrations remained essential to provide clear, detailed depictions of plants that helped botanists, horticulturists, and enthusiasts accurately identify various species. A growing number of amateur botanists, gardeners, and natural historians provided a market for floras and other botanical
publications To publish is to make Content (media), content available to the general public.Berne Conv ...
and illustrations increased the appeal and accessibility of these to the general reader. Johann Wilhelm Weinmann, in his ''Phytanthoza Iconographia'' (1737–1745), collaborated with , Johann Elias Ridinger, and Johann Jakob Haid. These artists produced over 1,000 hand-coloured
mezzotint Mezzotint is a monochrome printmaking process of the intaglio (printmaking), intaglio family. It was the first printing process that yielded half-tones without using line- or dot-based techniques like hatching, cross-hatching or stipple. Mezzo ...
engravings of several thousand plants, including depictions of tulips, and what to Europeans were then exotic, newly discovered flora and fauna, such as the banana tree, making this book one of the most comprehensive and highly regarded color-plate florilegia of its time. Haid also worked on the ''Plantae selectae'' (1750) of Christoph Jakob Trew, alongside Georg Dionysius Ehret (who also contributed to
Hans Sloane Sir Hans Sloane, 1st Baronet, (16 April 1660 – 11 January 1753), was an Irish physician, naturalist, and collector. He had a collection of 71,000 items which he bequeathed to the British nation, thus providing the foundation of the British ...
's protégé
Mark Catesby Mark Catesby (24 March 1683 – 23 December 1749) was an English natural history, naturalist who studied the flora and fauna of the New World. Between 1729 and 1747, Catesby published his ''Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama ...
's ''Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands'' (1729–1747) (also with coloured engravings). John Miller published ''Illustratio Systematis Sexualis Linnaei'' (Illustration of the Sexual System of Linnaeus, 1770–1777) which helped popularize the work of Linnaeus to English readers. In the mid-19th century, extensive horticultural studies emerged, including
Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau (; 20 July 170013 August 1782) was a French physician, naval engineer and botanist. Biography Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau was born in Paris in 1700, the son of Alexandre Duhamel, lord of Denainvilliers. I ...
's ''Traité des arbres et arbustes qui se cultivent en France en pleine terre'', 1755, or ''Traité des arbres fruitiers'', 1768. Robert Sweet, originally trained as a gardener, published a number of works on plants cultivated in British gardens and hothouses with plates mainly drawn by Edwin Dalton Smith, and ''The Florist's Guide and Cultivator's Directory'', both aimed at plant enthusiasts and their gardeners. An early pomologist like Jean-Baptiste de La Quintinie, published ''Pomology, or description of the best kinds of apples and pears'' (1758) and said illustrations were indispensable to help avoid mistakes caused by the fact that the same fruit was (still) often known by different names. Jan Van Huysum, known for his bouquets of flowers and particularly his tulips, contributed to John Hill's ''Eden, or, A Compleat Body of Gardening'', 1757, written with Thomas Hale. Hill is mostly remembered for ''The Vegetable System'', 1759–1775, a huge botanical work illustrated by 1,600 copper-plate engravings. An early
mycologist Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the study of fungi, including their taxonomy, genetics, biochemical properties, and use by humans. Fungi can be a source of tinder, food, traditional medicine, as well as entheogens, poison, and ...
Jacob Christian Schäffer published several richly illustrated volumes on mushrooms "depicted in their natural colors" (1759). Michel Étienne Descourtilz, ''Des champignons comestibles, suspects et vénéneux...'' (Edible, suspect and poisonous mushrooms... Accompanied by ten plates of drawings made from life, carefully coloured and representing two hundred species grouped together in the terrain that feeds them, 1827).
Nikolaus Joseph von Jacquin Nikolaus Joseph Freiherr von Jacquin (16 February 172726 October 1817) was a scientist who studied medicine, chemistry and botany. Biography Born in Leiden in the Netherlands, he studied medicine at Leiden University, then moved first to Par ...
's most influential publication may have been ''Selectarum Stirpium Americanarum Historia'' (1763), which detailed many plants from the Americas as he had been sent to the West Indies, Central America, Venezuela and New Granada (1755–1759). He also introduced many exotic species to Europe. Pierre-Joseph Buc'hoz, ''Herbier colorié de l'Amérique'' (Coloured herbarium of America, 1762) and more usefully, perhaps, ''Lettres sur la méthode de s'enrichir promptement, et de conserver sa santé, par la culture des végétaux exotiques'', 1768. There were other botanical expeditions, such as
James Cook Captain (Royal Navy), Captain James Cook (7 November 1728 – 14 February 1779) was a British Royal Navy officer, explorer, and cartographer famous for his three voyages of exploration to the Pacific and Southern Oceans, conducted between 176 ...
's first voyage around the world (1768–1771), during which
Joseph Banks Sir Joseph Banks, 1st Baronet, (19 June 1820) was an English Natural history, naturalist, botanist, and patron of the natural sciences. Banks made his name on the European and American voyages of scientific exploration, 1766 natural-history ...
and
Daniel Solander Daniel Carlsson Solander or Daniel Charles Solander (19 February 1733 – 13 May 1782) was a Sweden, Swedish naturalist and an Apostles of Linnaeus, apostle of Carl Linnaeus. Solander was the first university-educated scientist to set foot o ...
increased the known flora of the world by 25 percent ('' Banks' Florilegium'' was published much later). The first volumes of
Charles Louis L'Héritier de Brutelle Charles Louis L'Héritier de Brutelle (; 15 June 1746 – 18 August 1800) was an 18th-century French botanist and civil servant. Born into an affluent upper-class Parisian family, connections with the French Royal Court secured him the position ...
's ''Stirpes Novae'' (New Plants) were published in Paris in 1784–85, with full-page illustrations of all newly discovered species. Beginning with the second volume, the plates were drawn by
Pierre-Joseph Redouté Pierre-Joseph Redouté (, 10 July 1759 – 19 June 1840), was a Painting, painter and botanist from the Austrian Netherlands, known for his watercolours of roses, lily, lilies and other flowers at the Château de Malmaison, many of which we ...
, marking the beginning of his recognition as a talented botanical illustrator. Jacob Christoph Le Blon and Jacques Fabien Gautier d'Agoty invented a four- colour printing printing process in ''Collection des plantes usuelles, curieuses et étrangères... et imprimées en couleur'' (1767). Pierre Bulliard developed a different and cheaper colour printing process. Botanical illustration accompanied the development of
agronomy Agronomy is the science and technology of producing and using plants by agriculture for food, fuel, fiber, chemicals, recreation, or land conservation. Agronomy has come to include research of plant genetics, plant physiology, meteorology, and ...
(a term that appeared in the late 18th century) and the seed trade.
Johann Simon von Kerner Johann Simon von Kerner (25 February 1755 Kirchheim unter Teck, Baden-Württemberg – 13 June 1830 Stuttgart) was a German botanist and botanical illustrator, notable for his illustrations in ''Hortus sempervirens''. ''Hortus sempervirens: exhibe ...
, ''Illustration of All Economic Plants'' (''Abbildung aller oekonomischen Pflanzen'', Stuttgart 1786–96) is a notable example from this period.
Vegetable Vegetables are edible parts of plants that are consumed by humans or other animals as food. This original meaning is still commonly used, and is applied to plants collectively to refer to all edible plant matter, including edible flower, flo ...
s, overlooked by illustrators after the vogue for herbals waned, resurfaced thanks to seed merchants like Vilmorin-Andrieux, who employed botanical artists (before 1783). A new genre of books appeared, that of botanical
monograph A monograph is generally a long-form work on one (usually scholarly) subject, or one aspect of a subject, typically created by a single author or artist (or, sometimes, by two or more authors). Traditionally it is in written form and published a ...
s like Carl Wilhelm Ernst Putsche's ''Versuch einer Monographie der Kartoffeln'' (on potatoes, 1819) or like
Pierre-Joseph Redouté Pierre-Joseph Redouté (, 10 July 1759 – 19 June 1840), was a Painting, painter and botanist from the Austrian Netherlands, known for his watercolours of roses, lily, lilies and other flowers at the Château de Malmaison, many of which we ...
's ''Geraniologia'' (1787–1788), ''Les Liliacées'' (1802–1816), for which Redouté practised colour-printed
stipple engraving Stipple engraving is a technique used to create tone in an Intaglio (printmaking), intaglio print by distributing a pattern of dots of various sizes and densities across the image. The pattern is created on the printing plate either in engraving ...
or ''Les Roses'' (1817–1824), or
John Lindley John Lindley Fellow of the Royal Society, FRS (5 February 1799 – 1 November 1865) was an English botanist, gardener and orchidology, orchidologist. Early years Born in Old Catton, Catton, near Norwich, England, John Lindley was one of four c ...
's . The first botanical magazines were published in the late 18th century : "Curtis's Botanical Magazine" (1787 to the present), launched by William Curtis, is one of the most famous and long-running botanical magazines. It has employed many talented illustrators giving detailed views as well as exploded details and cross sections. Sydenham Edwards worked for Curtis's magazine and then to ''
The Botanical Register ''The Botanical Register'', subsequently known as ''Edwards's Botanical Register'', was an illustrated horticultural magazine that ran from 1815 to 1847. It was started by the botanical illustrator Sydenham Edwards, who had previously illustr ...
''. With a wider audience and ever increasing publication material, specialized journals such as this one or the ''
Annales de chimie et de physique __NOTOC__ ''Annales de chimie et de physique'' (, ) is a scientific journal founded in Paris, France, in 1789 under the title ''Annales de chimie''. One of the early editors was the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier. Lavoisier, an aristocrat, was ...
'' (Paris, 1789) reflect the growing division between scientific disciplines in the Enlightenment era. The
Linnean Society of London The Linnean Society of London is a learned society dedicated to the study and dissemination of information concerning natural history, evolution, and Taxonomy (biology), taxonomy. It possesses several important biological specimen, manuscript a ...
, a learned society dedicated to the study and dissemination of information concerning natural history, evolution, and taxonomy, was founded in 1788. (1775–1850)'s ''Icones plantarum rariorum'' (Illustrations of rare and beautiful flowers and plants, drawn, engraved and colored after nature, 1793) has hand-coloured illustrations by Hendrik Schwegman and text in Dutch, French and German. Jean Goulin and Labeyrie led the team that created a dictionary of useful plants, trees and shrubs (1793–94). Étienne Pierre Ventenat published ''Description des plantes nouvelles et peu connues, cultivées dans le jardin de J.-M. Cels'' (1799), a horticulturist, and ''Jardin de la Malmaison'' (1803) both with illustrations by Redouté. The Château de Malmaison housed a collection of rare plants.


19th century

In the 19th century a number of different methods of colour printing were developed in Europe, using including chromoxylography, which became the most successful of several methods of colour printing developed in the 19th century, and
chromolithography Chromolithography is a method for making multi-colour printmaking, prints in lithography, and in theory includes all types of lithography that are printed in colour. However, in modern usage it is normally restricted to 19th-century works, and ...
. Other methods were developed by printers such as Jacob Christoph Le Blon, George Baxter and Edmund Evans, and mostly relied on using several woodblocks with different colours. Hand-colouring also remained important. From 1801, William Say worked on steel plates rather than the usual, less durable, copper plates used since the early 16th century. However, revived the art of engraving, which reached a new peak with
Thomas Bewick Thomas Bewick (c. 11 August 1753 – 8 November 1828) was an English wood engraving, wood-engraver and natural history author. Early in his career he took on all kinds of work such as engraving cutlery, making the wood blocks for advertisements, ...
, who engraved the woodblocks "across the grain", making them much more durable. Robert John Thornton, ''A new family herbal'', 1810, was engraved by T. Bewick. Invented in 1796
lithography Lithography () is a planographic method of printing originally based on the miscibility, immiscibility of oil and water. The printing is from a stone (lithographic limestone) or a metal plate with a smooth surface. It was invented in 1796 by ...
quickly became the standard. Jan Kops' first issue of ''Flora Batava'' was published in Amsterdam in 1800 (last one 1934), with most of the illustrations in the first three volumes by
Georgius Jacobus Johannes van Os Georgius Jacobus Johannes van Os (20 November 1782 The Hague – 11 July 1861 Paris), was a 19th-century painter from the Netherlands. Biography According to the RKD he was a son and pupil of the painters Jan van Os and Susanna de la Croix, a ...
), a flower and fruit painter for the Sèvres porcelain factory.
Charles Alexandre Lesueur Charles Alexandre Lesueur (; 1 January 1778 in Le Havre – 12 December 1846 in Le Havre) was a French Natural history, naturalist, artist, and explorer. He was a prolific natural-history collector, gathering many type specimens in Australia ...
took part in the Baudin expedition to Australia (1800–1803) as a draughtsman, and ended his life as curator of the Natural History Museum of Le Havre. The painter took part in the same expedition, which he left in 1801: he brought back numerous paintings of flowers and fruits from
Mauritius Mauritius, officially the Republic of Mauritius, is an island country in the Indian Ocean, about off the southeastern coast of East Africa, east of Madagascar. It includes the main island (also called Mauritius), as well as Rodrigues, Ag ...
and La
Réunion Réunion (; ; ; known as before 1848) is an island in the Indian Ocean that is an overseas departments and regions of France, overseas department and region of France. Part of the Mascarene Islands, it is located approximately east of the isl ...
which were later purchased and exhibited in the "Carporama" (a collection of wax models of exotic fruits from Mauritius, by ) of the Museum d'Histoire naturelle. Pierre Antoine Poiteau, both a botanist and artist, was a student of Gérard van Spaendonck and a disciple of
Pierre-Joseph Redouté Pierre-Joseph Redouté (, 10 July 1759 – 19 June 1840), was a Painting, painter and botanist from the Austrian Netherlands, known for his watercolours of roses, lily, lilies and other flowers at the Château de Malmaison, many of which we ...
. Early in his career, he focused on collecting specimens in the Caribbean. In 1794, Pierre Jean François Turpin met botanist Poiteau in
Hispaniola Hispaniola (, also ) is an island between Geography of Cuba, Cuba and Geography of Puerto Rico, Puerto Rico in the Greater Antilles of the Caribbean. Hispaniola is the most populous island in the West Indies, and the second-largest by List of C ...
. Poiteau introduced Turpin to botany, and together, they studied and documented around 800 species from the Haitian flora. Between 1801 and 1820, Poiteau and Turpin created an extensive album of botanical drawings, featuring 147 original pieces. These illustrations depicted a vast array of European and exotic plants, often accompanied by detailed annotations on plant anatomy, including flowers, leaves, seeds, and fruits at various stages of development. While a few drawings were done in black ink or pencil, most were finely enhanced with watercolor. Many were published in ''Flora Parisiensis'', by Poiteau and Turpin (1808) and some by Turpin (and Ernestine Panckoucke) in ''Flore médicale'' by François-Pierre Chaumeton (1814–1820). The most striking drawings were included in François-Richard de Tussac's ''Flore des Antilles ou Histoire générale botanique, rurale et économique des végétaux indigènes des Antilles'' (Paris, chez L'Auteur, 1808), one of the earliest illustrated works on Caribbean flora. ''Flore des Antilles'' featured 50 engraved plates, some in color and some in black engraved after drawings by Redouté and others. Turpin also illustrated
Jean Louis Marie Poiret Jean Louis Marie Poiret (11 June 1755 in Saint-Quentin, Aisne, Saint-Quentin7 April 1834 in Paris) was a French clergyman, Botany, botanist, and Exploration, explorer. From 1785 to 1786, he was sent by Louis XVI of France, Louis XVI to Algeri ...
's ''Leçons de flore'' (1819–1820). Tussac is also remembered for an ill-advised ''Cri des colons'' against l'abbé Grégoire's ''De la littérature des Nègres'' (1810). By 1815, Poiteau had become the chief gardener of the royal nurseries at the Château de Versailles, later holding similar positions at the Château de Fontainebleau and the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle in Paris. He contributed to the (published 1829–1974). As for Turpin, he contributed to many botanical publications, including ''Icones selectae plantarum'' (1820–1840), and was elected a member of the Académie royale des sciences in 1833. He also collaborated with notable figures such as Delessert, Pyrame de Candolle, von Humboldt, Bonpland and others. Ferdinand Bauer illustrated '' Flora Graeca'' (1806–1840) and '' Illustrationes florae Novae Hollandiae'' (1813 - "Nova Hollandia" was the name applied to Australia). The
naturalist Natural history is a domain of inquiry involving organisms, including animals, fungi, and plants, in their natural environment, leaning more towards observational than experimental methods of study. A person who studies natural history is cal ...
Antoine Risso Giuseppe Antonio Risso (8 April 1777 – 25 August 1845), called Antoine Risso, was a naturalist from Nice. Risso was born in the city of Nice in the Duchy of Savoy, and studied under Giovanni Battista Balbis. He published ' (1810), ' (1826) an ...
published an essay on lemon trees (1813) that had acclimatized well on the
French Riviera The French Riviera, known in French as the (; , ; ), is the Mediterranean coastline of the southeast corner of France. There is no official boundary, but it is considered to be the coastal area of the Alpes-Maritimes department, extending fr ...
, only a few decades after it started becoming a fashionable health resort for the British upper class. In 1813, a Swiss botanist,
Augustin Pyramus de Candolle Augustin Pyramus (or Pyrame) de Candolle (, , ; 4 February 17789 September 1841) was a Swiss people, Swiss botany, botanist. René Louiche Desfontaines launched de Candolle's botanical career by recommending him at a herbarium. Within a couple ...
, published Théorie Élémentaire de la Botanique, in which he placed emphasis on the study of
evolution Evolution is the change in the heritable Phenotypic trait, characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. It occurs when evolutionary processes such as natural selection and genetic drift act on genetic variation, re ...
ary relationships in grouping plants together, rather than on shared morphological characteristics. He also contributed to phytogeography, agronomy and economic botany.
Johann Matthäus Bechstein Johann Matthäus Bechstein (11 July 1757 – 23 February 1822) was a German naturalist, forester, ornithologist, entomologist, and Herpetology, herpetologist. In Great Britain, he was known for his treatise on singing birds (''Naturgeschichte der ...
and Giorgio Gallesio both depicted plants alongside the animals that affect them. Bechstein's ''Naturgeschichte der schädlichen Waldinsecten'' (1798–1800) focused on harmful forest insects, thus offering valuable insights for
forestry Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, planting, using, conserving and repairing forests and woodlands for associated resources for human and Natural environment, environmental benefits. Forestry is practiced in plantations and ...
and agricultural
entomology Entomology (from Ancient Greek ἔντομον (''éntomon''), meaning "insect", and -logy from λόγος (''lógos''), meaning "study") is the branch of zoology that focuses on insects. Those who study entomology are known as entomologists. In ...
. Gallesio's ''Pomona Italiana'' (1820) focused on fruit cultivation in Italy and the insects and animals that affect the trees' growth and health. During the Victorian-era craze known as orchidelirium, more monographs were produced.
John Lindley John Lindley Fellow of the Royal Society, FRS (5 February 1799 – 1 November 1865) was an English botanist, gardener and orchidology, orchidologist. Early years Born in Old Catton, Catton, near Norwich, England, John Lindley was one of four c ...
, a pioneering orchidologist, published ''The Genera and Species of Orchidaceous Plants'' (1830) and ''Sertum Orchidaceum'' (1837-1841 - and, in collaboration with William Hutton, a pioneering book on
paleobotany Paleobotany or palaeobotany, also known as paleophytology, is the branch of botany dealing with the recovery and identification of plant fossils from geological contexts, and their use for the biological reconstruction of past environments ( pal ...
, ''The fossil flora of Great Britain; or, Figures and descriptions of the vegetable remains found in a fossil state in this country''. Famous orchid illustrators also include John Nugent Fitch, who contributed 528 plates to
Thomas Moore Thomas Moore (28 May 1779 – 25 February 1852), was an Irish writer, poet, and lyricist who was widely regarded as Ireland's "National poet, national bard" during the late Georgian era. The acclaim rested primarily on the popularity of his ''I ...
's ''The Orchid Album'' (1882–97). Fitch also contributed to
Curtis's Botanical Magazine ''The Botanical Magazine; or Flower-Garden Displayed'', is an illustrated publication which began in 1787. The longest running botanical magazine, it is widely referred to by the subsequent name ''Curtis's Botanical Magazine''. Each of the issue ...
.
Kew Gardens Kew Gardens is a botanical garden, botanic garden in southwest London that houses the "largest and most diverse botany, botanical and mycology, mycological collections in the world". Founded in 1759, from the exotic garden at Kew Park, its li ...
was founded in 1840, around the same time as Victorian British horticulturists also developed a passion for ferns, pteridomania, which led to the creation of a new botanical journal, The Phytologist (1841) and more monographs like '' The Ferns of Great Britain and Ireland'' (1855), also by Thomas Moore, illustrated by Henry Bradbury, who used Alois Auer's ' nature printing' process. Constantin von Ettingshausen's ''Physiotypia Plantarum Austriacarum'' is a landmark nature-printed book, originally featuring 530 plates (Vienna, c. 1855), later expanded to 1,000 plates in a 1873 Prague edition.
Walter Hood Fitch Walter Hood Fitch (28 February 1817 – 14 January 1892) was a botanical illustrator, born in Glasgow, Scotland, who executed some 10,000 drawings for various publications. His work in colour lithograph, including 2700 illustrations for ''C ...
's exceptional artistic skill, very long career (1834–88) and prolific output. He is best known for his collaboration with renowned botanists such as
Joseph Dalton Hooker Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker (30 June 1817 – 10 December 1911) was a British botanist and explorer in the 19th century. He was a founder of geographical botany and Charles Darwin's closest friend. For 20 years he served as director of the Ro ...
, a founder of
phytogeography Phytogeography (from Greek φυτόν, ''phytón'' = "plant" and γεωγραφία, ''geographía'' = "geography" meaning also distribution) or botanical geography is the branch of biogeography that is concerned with the geographic distribution ...
(Flora Antarctica, 1844–1859; The Rhododendrons of Sikkim-Himalaya, 1849–51). Fitch's illustrations also appeared in ''Curtis's Botanical Magazine''. He was a pioneer in the use of
chromolithography Chromolithography is a method for making multi-colour printmaking, prints in lithography, and in theory includes all types of lithography that are printed in colour. However, in modern usage it is normally restricted to 19th-century works, and ...
for botanical illustrations. The agronomist , in his ''Traité élémentaire de botanique et de physiologie végétale'', Paris, 1837, offers advice to all those who cultivate plants, with a wealth of illustrations. Anne Pratt, an autodidactic woman, rose to prominence when she published books (starting around 1840) she illustrated with chromolithographs.
Louis van Houtte Louis may refer to: People * Louis (given name), origin and several individuals with this name * Louis (surname) * Louis (singer), Serbian singer Other uses * Louis (coin), a French coin * HMS ''Louis'', two ships of the Royal Navy See also * ...
started the horticultural journal ''Flore des serres et des Jardins de l'Europe'' in 1845. Collaborators on the journal were Charles Lemaire, and Michael Scheidweiler. When
Eugène Delacroix Ferdinand Victor Eugène Delacroix ( ; ; 26 April 1798 – 13 August 1863) was a French people, French Romanticism, Romantic artist who was regarded as the leader of the French Romantic school.Noon, Patrick, et al., ''Crossing the Channel: ...
painted flower pictures in 1848–49, he opposed his approach to that of botanical artists, regretting "the study of details, which ome paintershave carried to a very high point," and for his part decided to "subordinate details to the whole" and "try to make pieces of nature as they appear in gardens, only by bringing together in the same frame and in a somewhat probable way the greatest possible variety of flowers."
Anna Atkins Anna Atkins (; 16 March 1799 – 9 June 1871) was an English botanist and photographer. She is often considered the first person to publish a book illustrated with photographic images. Some sources say that she was the first woman to create a ...
hand-printed several albums of botanical and textile specimens, especially ''Photographs of British Algae: Cyanotype Impressions'' (between 1843 and 1853), "the first photographically printed and illustrated book". In 1856 Iinuma Yokusai published the ''Somoku-zusetsu'', the first botanical encyclopedia in Japan to use Linnaean taxonomy. Iwasaki Tsunemasa had already started publishing Honzō Zufu (Iconographia Plantarum or Diagrams and Chronicles of Botany) a woodblock illustrated work (1828–1921). In the 1870s, Leopold Kny created a series of large, detailed botanical wall charts (Botanische Wandtafeln). These charts depicted various plant structures, including roots, flowers, and leaves, in great detail and at a large scale, making them useful for teaching botany in classrooms. Teachers could also use Robert and Reinhold Brendel's papier-mâché models (For more details, see Wikipedia in French: Modèles Brendel, or in German: Robert Brendel (Modellbauer)). Deyrolle also published wall charts (planches didactiques). After several expeditions to South and Central America,
Jean Jules Linden Jean Jules Linden (12 February 1817,Jean Linden, expl ...
made a detailed study of orchid growth conditions in their natural habitat. His findings revolutionised the cultivation of orchids under European conditions. Upon his return to Belgium, he became a prominent commercial orchid grower. Linden published exceptional books on orchids and their cultivation, commissioning leading botanical illustrators to create a number of chromolithographs. His ''Iconographie des Orchidées'' (17 volumes, 1885–1903) is monumental. Many of the plates in the first series and all of the plates in the second series were executed by the noted botanical illustrator Walter Hood Fitch, called by Blunt & Stearn "the most outstanding botanical artist of his day in Europe". Fitch was the preferred artist of eminent British botanist
William Jackson Hooker Sir William Jackson Hooker (6 July 178512 August 1865) was an English botany, botanist and botanical illustrator, who became the first director of Kew Gardens, Kew when in 1841 it was recommended to be placed under state ownership as a botan ...
, the first director of Kew Gardens. His publishing career lasted at least from 1851 to 1880. Fitch also illustrated Henry John Elwes's ''Monograph of the Genus Lilium'' (1880), while his comprehensive ''The Trees of Great Britain & Ireland'' (1906–1913), with Augustine Henry, seems to contain primarily
photogravure Photogravure (in French ''héliogravure'') is a process for printing photographs, also sometimes used for reproductive intaglio printmaking. It is a photo-mechanical process whereby a copper plate is grained (adding a pattern to the plate) and ...
s, but their author is not specified. Botanical illustration took a new direction with the rise of
Art Nouveau Art Nouveau ( ; ; ), Jugendstil and Sezessionstil in German, is an international style of art, architecture, and applied art, especially the decorative arts. It was often inspired by natural forms such as the sinuous curves of plants and ...
, which was popular between 1890 and 1910. Art Nouveau artists included
Eugène Grasset Eugène Samuel Grasset (; 25 May 1845 – 23 October 1917) was a Swiss decorative artist who worked in Paris, France in a variety of creative design fields during the Belle Époque. He is considered a pioneer in Art Nouveau design. Biography ...
, whose publication ''Plants and Their Application to Ornament'' (1896) emphasized the importance of studying natural forms in art . His student, Maurice Pillard Verneuil, wrote ''Etude de la plante : son application aux industries d'art'' (1903), which featured real, detailed botanical plates. Another significant figure was Anton Seder, though he is best remembered for his more stylized designs. Particularly noteworthy were the artists of the École de Nancy—including Louis Majorelle,
Émile Gallé Émile Gallé (; 4 May 1846 in Nancy, France, Nancy – 23 September 1904 in Nancy) was a French artist and designer who worked in glass, and is considered to be one of the major innovators in the French Art Nouveau movement. He was noted fo ...
, and the Daum glassworks—who drew inspiration from the natural flora of the Lorraine region. Despite their regional focus, these artists, like others in the Art Nouveau movement, often popularized exotic plant forms such as orchids. One of the most botanically inclined among them may have been Henri Bergé, a decorator for Daum, who produced many hand-painted botanical plates for the ' (1895–1930), now preserved at the Musée de l'École de Nancy". These plates served as a source of inspiration for Daum's artisans, who were trained to imitate and incorporate these natural forms into their work.


20th and 21st centuries

As the 19th century ended and photography gained popularity,
Photoengraving Photoengraving is a process that uses a light-sensitive photoresist applied to the surface to be engraved to create a mask that protects some areas during a subsequent operation which etches, dissolves, or otherwise removes some or all of the ma ...
, which used
halftone Halftone is the reprographic technique that simulates continuous tone, continuous-tone imagery through the use of dots, varying either in size or in spacing, thus generating a gradient-like effect.Campbell, Alastair. ''The Designer's Lexicon''. ...
technology instead of traditional illustration, became the primary aesthetic of the era. The first offset press was introduced in 1907, revolutionizing image reproduction. New botanical specialties emerged and developed:
Lichenology Lichenology is the branch of mycology that studies the lichens, symbiotic organisms made up of an intimate symbiotic association of a microscopic alga (or a cyanobacterium) with a Hypha, filamentous fungus. Lichens are chiefly characterized by th ...
(pioneered by
Erik Acharius Erik Acharius (10 October 1757 – 14 August 1819) was a Swedish botanist who pioneered the Taxonomy (biology), taxonomy of lichens and is known as the "father of lichenology". Acharius was famously the last pupil of Carl Linnaeus. Life Ac ...
), Phycology (William Henry Harvey), Palaeobotany (Kaspar Maria von Sternberg), and
Ecology Ecology () is the natural science of the relationships among living organisms and their Natural environment, environment. Ecology considers organisms at the individual, population, community (ecology), community, ecosystem, and biosphere lev ...
(
Eugenius Warming Johannes Eugenius Bülow Warming (3 November 1841 – 2 April 1924), known as Eugen Warming, was a Danish botanist and a main founding figure of the scientific discipline of ecology. Warming wrote the first textbook (1895) on plant ecology, ta ...
), along with new fields like
Cytogenetics Cytogenetics is essentially a branch of genetics, but is also a part of cell biology/cytology (a subdivision of human anatomy), that is concerned with how the chromosomes relate to cell behaviour, particularly to their behaviour during mitosis an ...
. Botanical illustrators are still actively working today. American botanists
Nathaniel Lord Britton Nathaniel Lord Britton (1859 – 1934) was an American botanist and taxonomist who co-founded the New York Botanical Garden in the Bronx, New York (state), New York. Early life Britton was born on the 15 of January 1859 at New Dorp, Staten Island ...
and
Joseph Nelson Rose Joseph Nelson Rose (January 11, 1862 – May 4, 1928) was an American botanist. He was born in Union County, Indiana. His father died serving during the Civil War when Joseph Rose was a young boy. He later graduated from high school in Liberty, ...
, with illustrator Mary Emily Eaton, published
The Cactaceae ''The Cactaceae'' is a monograph on plants of the cactus family written by the American botanists Nathaniel Lord Britton and Joseph Nelson Rose and published in multiple volumes between 1919 and 1923. It was landmark study that extensively reor ...
(1919–1923). The prolific Matilda Smith was active until the early 1920s.
Batty Langley Batty Langley (''baptised'' 14 September 1696 – 3 March 1751) was an English garden designer, and prolific writer who produced a number of engraved designs for " Gothick" structures, summerhouses and garden seats in the years before the mid-1 ...
, ''Pomona, or The Fruit-garden illustrated'' (London, 1928). In 1972, the
Smithsonian Institution The Smithsonian Institution ( ), or simply the Smithsonian, is a group of museums, Education center, education and Research institute, research centers, created by the Federal government of the United States, U.S. government "for the increase a ...
hired its first botanical illustrator,
Alice Tangerini Alice R. Tangerini (born April 25, 1949) is an American botanical illustrator. In 1972, Tangerini was hired as a staff illustrator for the Department of Botany at the National Museum of Natural History by American botanist Lyman Bradford Smith. ...
. In the 1980s, Celia Rosser undertook to illustrate every ''Banksia'' species for the masterwork, '' The Banksias''. When another species was described after its publication, '' Banksia rosserae'', it was named to honour her mammoth accomplishment. New developments include American hospital radiologist Dr. Dain L. Tasker (1872–1964) making X-ray pictures of flowers in the 1930s. The
electron microscope An electron microscope is a microscope that uses a beam of electrons as a source of illumination. It uses electron optics that are analogous to the glass lenses of an optical light microscope to control the electron beam, for instance focusing it ...
(second half of the 20th century) made it possible to classify life into five or six kingdoms, three of which relate to botany (fungi, plants,
chromista Chromista is a proposed but polyphyletic obsolete Biology, biological Kingdom (biology), kingdom, refined from the Chromalveolata, consisting of single-celled and multicellular eukaryotic species that share similar features in their Photosynthesi ...
).
Adolf Engler Heinrich Gustav Adolf Engler (25 March 1844 – 10 October 1930) was a German botanist. He is notable for his work on plant taxonomy and phytogeography, such as ''Die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien'' (''The Natural Plant Families''), edited with K ...
's plant classification system outlined in ''Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien'' (1892) was later modified by the
Cronquist system The Cronquist system is a list of systems of plant taxonomy, taxonomic classification system of angiosperms, flowering plants. It was developed by Arthur Cronquist in a series of monographs and texts, including ''The Evolution and Classification of ...
(1968). Today, illustrations reveal plant structures at microscopic and
molecular A molecule is a group of two or more atoms that are held together by attractive forces known as chemical bonds; depending on context, the term may or may not include ions that satisfy this criterion. In quantum physics, organic chemistry, ...
levels. Field guides, floras, catalogues and magazines produced since the introduction of photography to print material have continued to include illustrations. A compromise of accuracy and idealized images from several specimens can be easily (re)produced by skilled artists. Illustrations are also at times just preferred for some print/digital audiences or text formats. Organizations devoted to furthering botanical art are found in the US ( American Society of Botanical Artists), UK (Society of Botanical Artists), Australia (Botanical Art Society of Australia), the Netherlands ( Dutch Society for Botanical Artists) and South Africa (Botanical Artists Association of South Africa), among others. There is an increasing interest in the changes occurring in the natural world and in the central role plants play in maintaining healthy ecosystems. A sense of urgency has developed in documenting today's plant life for future generations. Original botanical illustrations rendered in traditional media (with which art conservators are more familiar) can and might serve as reference research materials for endangered species and
climate change Present-day climate change includes both global warming—the ongoing increase in Global surface temperature, global average temperature—and its wider effects on Earth's climate system. Climate variability and change, Climate change in ...
. In recent years, the field has embraced digital tools, with artists creating botanical illustrations using digital techniques while adhering to the established principles of traditional botanical art. This modern approach has gained momentum, offering new possibilities for precision and creativity. Notable digital botanical artists include Niki Simpson, known for her innovative; Natasha Coverdale, whose digital pieces have been exhibited at the ''Garden Museum''; and artists from Fiurdelin, who blends traditional aesthetics with contemporary digital design. This evolution highlights the enduring relevance of botanical illustration in both art and science.


Chinese illustrators

The Shennong Bencaojing, written between the first and second centuries AD, considered as the oldest book on Chinese herbal medicine, does not seem to have been illustrated originally. It was revised by
Tao Hongjing Tao Hongjing (456–536), courtesy name Tongming, was a Chinese alchemist, astronomer, calligrapher, military general, musician, physician, and pharmacologist during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. A polymathic individual of many tal ...
's ''Bencao jing jizhu'' c.500, which was itself revised by a team of officials and physicians headed by Su Jing (599-674), also known as Su Gong (''
Xinxiu bencao The ''Xinxiu bencao'' (), also known as the ''Tang bencao'' (), is a Chinese pharmacopoeia written in the Tang dynasty by a team of officials and physicians headed by editor-in-chief . It borrowed heavily from—and expanded upon—the earlier ...
'' or ''Tang Ben Cao'' or The Tang Classic of Materia Medica), a . Yaoxing lun, literally Treatise on the Nature of Medicinal Herbs, is a 7th-century treatise on herbal medicine. André-Georges Haudricourt and Georges Métailié mention Song Boren, a poet and painter who is best known for ''Meihua Xishen Pu'' (Guide to Representing a Plum Blossom), published in 1238. This manual pairs poems with illustrations of plum blossoms at various stages, from buds to full bloom. His approach is purely artistic. On the contrary,
Shen Kuo Shen Kuo (; 1031–1095) or Shen Gua, courtesy name Cunzhong (存中) and Art name#China, pseudonym Mengqi (now usually given as Mengxi) Weng (夢溪翁),Yao (2003), 544. was a Chinese polymath, scientist, and statesman of the Song dynasty (960� ...
's Bencao is a book on
Traditional Chinese medicine Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is an alternative medicine, alternative medical practice drawn from traditional medicine in China. A large share of its claims are pseudoscientific, with the majority of treatments having no robust evidence ...
(1249). On the other hand, the prince and botanist Zhu Su, acted to promote the welfare of his contemporaries in times of famine when he composed his '' Jiuhuang bencao'' or ''Famine Relief Herbal'' (1406). This text lists 414 edible wild plants, each with an illustration and a brief description of its appearance, pharmacological properties, and culinary uses. Li Shizhen(1518–1593) is regarded as a leading scientific figure in China. For Haudricourt and Métailié, his '' Bencao Gangmu'' (1596) can be compared to similar European Renaissance works. The illustrations are not always true to life. ''Bencao yuanshi'' (Origins of Materia Medica), by Li Zhongli, first published in 1612, focuses on plants with medicinal properties. The plants or useful parts of plants are illustrated. Cheng Yaotian (1736-1796) observed plants in nature and cultivated them. The drawings accompanying his text resemble herbarium specimens, emphasizing flower and fruit details. (1789-1847)'s ''Illustrated Catalogues of Plants'' (1848) also relied on direct observation of plants in nature. The authors conclude that despite working in rich plant environments,
scholar-official The scholar-officials, also known as literati, scholar-gentlemen or scholar-bureaucrats (), were government officials and prestigious scholars in Chinese society, forming a distinct social class. Scholar-officials were politicians and governmen ...
s' inventories rarely exceeded 2000 plants, much less than some European floras did in the 16th century.


Other types of floral representations


Two-dimensional representations

An exhibition at the
Grand Palais The (; ), commonly known as the , is a historic site, exhibition hall and museum complex located in the 8th arrondissement of Paris between the Champs-Élysées and the Seine, France. Construction of the began in 1897 following the demolitio ...
in 2017 displayed other types of botanical illustrations: *
Papercutting Papercutting or paper cutting is the art of paper designs that has evolved all over the world to adapt to different cultural styles. One traditional distinction most styles share is that the designs are cut from a single sheet of paper as oppo ...
: ( Philipp Otto Runge, 1777–1810). This discipline was also practised in Ottoman Turkey (17th-18th centuries), under the name of Kaat'ı (more or less similar to quilling). *
Collages Collage (, from the , "to glue" or "to stick together") is a technique of art creation, primarily used in the visual arts, but in music too, by which art results from an assembly of different forms, thus creating a new whole. (Compare with pasti ...
: (watercolor-enhanced paper collages by
Mary Delany Mary Delany, earlier Mary Pendarves ( Granville; 14 May 1700 – 15 April 1788) was an English artist, letter-writer, and bluestocking, known for her "paper-mosaicks", botanic drawing, needlework and her lively correspondence. Early life Mary ...
). * Cut-out gouaches (Acanthus by
Henri Matisse Henri Émile Benoît Matisse (; 31 December 1869 – 3 November 1954) was a French visual arts, visual artist, known for both his use of colour and his fluid and original draughtsmanship. He was a drawing, draughtsman, printmaking, printmaker, ...
), 1953. * Wall-paper and textile designers like Joseph-Laurent Malaine and the Arthur et Robert wallpaper factory, or William Morris, who paid close attention to botanical detail in his botanical patterns (Common hollyhock, 1862). * Ceramics, such as those from Sèvres, often feature botanical motifs, finely observed from the 18th century onward. In 1790, Frederick VI of Denmark ordered a dinner set made decorated with exact copies of the plates of Flora Danica. Loren L. Zeller notes that Jean-Baptiste Pillement also produced several collections containing exotic floral and botanical designs. This was at a time when many women loved accessories decorated with flowers (flower holders, fans, perfume dispensers such as perfum

and floral wall hangings, wallpaper, textiles and jewels were fashionable. * Floral marquetry : Jan van Mekeren (Tiel 1658-1733 Amsterdam) is remembered for his cabinets covered with floral marquetry representing more than ten identifiable flowers. Cabinetmaker Jean-François Oeben was renowned for his foral marquetry decorations. Martine Lefèvre suggests that the foliage and flower decor on a table by Oeben may have been inspired by Jacques Daniel Cottin's indiennes as Cottin (who Christophe-Philippe Oberkampf worked for before he founded his toile de Jouy manufacture) was his neighbour in the "cour des Princes" in the . She also writes that Cottin had "a silk sample decorated with twisted columns and small bouquets sent from Lyon in order to copy it". The silk manufactures in Lyon employed skilled artists trained in the local "classe de fleur" (flower drawing school) or in Paris ( Gobelins Manufactory). The carved decor of Louis XV furniture featured garlands of flowers, fleurettes, palmettes, and foliage, as well as seashells. The
Rocaille Rocaille ( , ) was a French style of exuberant decoration, with an abundance of curves, counter-curves, undulations and elements modeled on nature, that appeared in furniture and interior decorative arts, decoration during the early reign of Lo ...
, during the reign of Louis XV, included the use of vegetal forms (vines, leaves, flowers) intertwined in complex designs.


Three-dimensional representations

* wax sculpture : (1777–1828) devoted 25 years of his life to creating the Museum's "Carporama", a collection of 112 tropical wax fruits and plants made between 1803 and 1826. The collection was presented in the Museum's botanical galleries in 1829. Before him, (1746–1828) had made wax mushrooms inspired by engravings by Pierre Bulliard (1742–1793). * Papier mâché molded as in the botanical models designed for use in teaching by Louis Auzoux, dating from the 1870s-1880s, now in the . Papier mâché and other materials were used for the Robert and Reinhold Brendel's . * Glass : In 1886, glass artists Leopold and Rudolf Blaschka were commissioned by the
Harvard Harvard University is a private Ivy League research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. Founded in 1636 and named for its first benefactor, the Puritan clergyman John Harvard, it is the oldest institution of higher lear ...
Botanical Museum to create a collection of Glass Flowers. * Flowers have inspired many jewellers. In the 19th century, at least, they relied on detailed botanical sketches. "The ... designs, made by ctaveLoeulliard for Boucheron, were criticized for striving after the exact representation of natural forms at the expense of the actual function of the jewel,... a criticism which could equally well have been levelled at Carl Fabergé and the Art Nouveau jewellers who clearly tended to regard a p iece of jewellery as a work of art rather than as a fashionable accessory".Victorianweb:

and Gallica

/ref> Other examples include jewels by Mellerio dits Meller (Set of jewels called ''Fuchsias en pluie'' - shower of Fuchsia flowers), circa 1830, presented at the Redouté exhibition at the Musée de la Vie romantique).


Notable botanical illustrators

Notable botanical illustrators include: * James Andrews * George French Angas * Claude Aubriet * Alois Auer * Françoise Basseporte * Ferdinand Bauer * Franz Bauer * Mary Foley Benson *
Elizabeth Blackwell Elizabeth Blackwell (3 February 182131 May 1910) was an English-American physician, notable as the first woman to earn a medical degree in the United States, and the first woman on the Medical Register of the General Medical Council for the Un ...
* Harry Bolus * Priscilla Susan Bury * Olivia Marie Braida-Chiusano *
Mark Catesby Mark Catesby (24 March 1683 – 23 December 1749) was an English natural history, naturalist who studied the flora and fauna of the New World. Between 1729 and 1747, Catesby published his ''Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama ...
* Lise Cloquet * Gillian Condy *
Léon Camille Marius Croizat Leon, Léon (French) or León (Spanish) may refer to: Places Europe * León, Spain, capital city of the Province of León * Province of León, Spain * Kingdom of León, an independent state in the Iberian Peninsula from 910 to 1230 and again fro ...
*
Dioscorides Pedanius Dioscorides (, ; 40–90 AD), "the father of pharmacognosy", was a Greek physician, pharmacologist, botanist, and author of (in the original , , both meaning "On Materia medica, Medical Material") , a 5-volume Greek encyclopedic phar ...
* Catharina Helena Dörrien * Atanasio Echeverria y Godoy * Sydenham Edwards * Georg Dionysius Ehret *
James Henry Emerton James Henry Emerton (March 31, 1847 – December 5, 1931) was an American arachnologist and illustrator. Early life Emerton was born at Salem, Massachusetts, on March 31, 1847. He was rather frail, and a young helper in his father's drug store, G ...
* Barbara Everard *
Walter Hood Fitch Walter Hood Fitch (28 February 1817 – 14 January 1892) was a botanical illustrator, born in Glasgow, Scotland, who executed some 10,000 drawings for various publications. His work in colour lithograph, including 2700 illustrations for ''C ...
* Barbara Jeppe * Martha King * Jacques le Moyne * Dorothy van Dyke Leake * Cythna Letty * Carl Axel Magnus Lindman * Margaret Mee * Maria Sibylla Merian * Philippa Nikulinsky * Marianne North *
Pierre-Joseph Redouté Pierre-Joseph Redouté (, 10 July 1759 – 19 June 1840), was a Painting, painter and botanist from the Austrian Netherlands, known for his watercolours of roses, lily, lilies and other flowers at the Château de Malmaison, many of which we ...
* Sarah Rhodes * Lewis Roberts * Celia Rosser * Ellis Rowan * Vera Scarth-Johnson * Ellen Isham Schutt * Dorothea Eliza Smith * Matilda Smith * Lilian Snelling * Gerard van Spaendonck *
James Sowerby James Sowerby (21 March 1757 – 25 October 1822) was an English natural history, naturalist, illustrator and mineralogist. Contributions to published works, such as ''A Specimen of the Botany of New Holland'' or ''English Botany'', include his ...
* Sydney Parkinson *
Alice Tangerini Alice R. Tangerini (born April 25, 1949) is an American botanical illustrator. In 1972, Tangerini was hired as a staff illustrator for the Department of Botany at the National Museum of Natural History by American botanist Lyman Bradford Smith. ...
* Frances Elizabeth Tripp * Elizabeth Twining * Pierre Jean François Turpin * Ellaphie Ward-Hilhorst


Awards

The
Linnean Society of London The Linnean Society of London is a learned society dedicated to the study and dissemination of information concerning natural history, evolution, and Taxonomy (biology), taxonomy. It possesses several important biological specimen, manuscript a ...
awards the Jill Smythies Award for botanical illustration.


See also

*
Florilegium In medieval Latin, a ' (plural ') was a compilation of excerpts or sententia from other writings and is an offshoot of the commonplacing tradition. The word is from the Latin '' flos'' (flower) and '' legere'' (to gather): literally a gathering ...
*
Still life A still life (: still lifes) is a work of art depicting mostly wikt:inanimate, inanimate subject matter, typically commonplace objects which are either natural (food, flowers, dead animals, plants, rocks, shells, etc.) or artificiality, human-m ...
* List of florilegia and botanical codices *
List of American botanical illustrators This is a list of notable botanical illustrators and flower painters born in or citizens of the United States of America. Botanical illustrators paint or draw plants and sometimes their natural environment as well, forming a lineage where art and ...
* List of Australian botanical illustrators *
List of Irish botanical illustrators This is a list of botanical illustrators born or active in Ireland. Botanical illustration involves the painting, drawing and illustration of plants and ecosystems. Often meticulously observed, the botanical art tradition combines both science a ...
*
Illustration An illustration is a decoration, interpretation, or visual explanation of a text, concept, or process, designed for integration in print and digitally published media, such as posters, flyers, magazines, books, teaching materials, animations, vi ...
* Stuttgart Database of Scientific Illustrators


References


Further reading

* De Bray, Lys (2001). ''The Art of Botanical Illustration: A history of classic illustrators and their achievements''. Quantum Publishing, London. . * Blunt, Wilfrid and Stearn, William T. (1994). ''The Art of Botanical Illustration''. Antique Collector's Club, London. . * Morris, Colleen; Louisa Murray: (2016). ''The Florilegium: the Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney celebrating 200 years: plants of the three gardens of the Royal Botanic Gardens and Domain Trust'', The Florilegium Society at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney. * Sherwood, Shirley (2001). ''A Passion for Plants: Contemporary Botanical Masterworks''. Cassell and Co, London. . * Sherwood, Shirley and Rix, Martyn (2008). ''Treasures of Botanical Art''.
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew is a non-departmental public body in the United Kingdom sponsored by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. An internationally important botanical research and education institution, it employs 1,10 ...
. . * * * *


External links


American Society of Botanical Artists
* ttp://www.botanicalartsocietyaustralia.com Botanical Art Society of Australiabr>Botanical Drawings of carnivorous plants from the John Innes Centre Historical Collection

Plantillustrations.org: searchable database of historic illustrationsBotany.si.edu: online Smithsonian catalogueFlora of New Granada (Colombia) Drawings online, from the Royal Botanical Expedition led by Jose Celestino Mutis University of Delaware: 'The Art of Botanical Illustration' exhibit
* {{cite web , title=The Science of Art — Why Botanical Illustration Matters , url=https://ntbg.org/news/the-science-of-art-why-botanical-illustration-matters/ , publisher=National Tropical Botanical Garden , access-date=5 March 2025 , date=June 28, 2019 01 . Illustration Botany