There exists a consensus among scholars that

Jesus of Nazareth Jesus ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ, Jesus of Nazareth, and many other names and titles, was a 1st-century Jewish preacher and religious leader. He is the central figure of Christianity, the world's largest religi ...

spoke the

Aramaic language Aramaic (; ) is a Northwest Semitic languages, Northwest Semitic language that originated in the ancient Syria (region), region of Syria and quickly spread to Mesopotamia, the southern Levant, Sinai Peninsula, Sinai, Southeastern Anatolia Regi ...

. Aramaic was the common language of Roman Judaea, and was thus also spoken by Jesus' disciples. The villages of

Nazareth Nazareth is the largest Cities in Israel, city in the Northern District (Israel), Northern District of Israel. In its population was . Known as "the Arab capital of Israel", Nazareth serves as a cultural, political, religious, economic and ...

and

Capernaum Capernaum ( ; ; ) was a fishing village established during the time of the Hasmoneans, located on the northern shore of the Sea of Galilee. It had a population of about 1,500 in the 1st century AD. Archaeological excavations have revealed tw ...

Galilee Galilee (; ; ; ) is a region located in northern Israel and southern Lebanon consisting of two parts: the Upper Galilee (, ; , ) and the Lower Galilee (, ; , ). ''Galilee'' encompasses the area north of the Mount Carmel-Mount Gilboa ridge and ...

, where he spent most of his time, were populated by Aramaic-speaking communities. Jesus probably spoke the Galilean dialect, distinguishable from that which was spoken in Roman-era Jerusalem. Based on the symbolic renaming or nicknaming of some of his

apostles An apostle (), in its literal sense, is an emissary. The word is derived from Ancient Greek ἀπόστολος (''apóstolos''), literally "one who is sent off", itself derived from the verb ἀποστέλλειν (''apostéllein''), "to se ...

, it is also likely that Jesus or at least one of his apostles knew enough

Koine Greek Koine Greek (, ), also variously known as Hellenistic Greek, common Attic, the Alexandrian dialect, Biblical Greek, Septuagint Greek or New Testament Greek, was the koiné language, common supra-regional form of Greek language, Greek spoken and ...

to converse with non-Judaeans. It is reasonable to assume that Jesus was well versed in

Hebrew Hebrew (; ''ʿÎbrit'') is a Northwest Semitic languages, Northwest Semitic language within the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family. A regional dialect of the Canaanite languages, it was natively spoken by the Israelites and ...

for religious purposes, as it is the liturgical language of

Judaism Judaism () is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic, Monotheism, monotheistic, ethnic religion that comprises the collective spiritual, cultural, and legal traditions of the Jews, Jewish people. Religious Jews regard Judaism as their means of o ...

Cultural and linguistic background

Aramaic was the

common language A lingua franca (; ; for plurals see ), also known as a bridge language, common language, trade language, auxiliary language, link language or language of wider communication (LWC), is a Natural language, language systematically used to make co ...

of the

Eastern Mediterranean The Eastern Mediterranean is a loosely delimited region comprising the easternmost portion of the Mediterranean Sea, and well as the adjoining land—often defined as the countries around the Levantine Sea. It includes the southern half of Turkey ...

during and after the

Neo-Assyrian The Neo-Assyrian Empire was the fourth and penultimate stage of ancient Assyrian history. Beginning with the accession of Adad-nirari II in 911 BC, the Neo-Assyrian Empire grew to dominate the ancient Near East and parts of South Caucasus, Nort ...

Neo-Babylonian The Neo-Babylonian Empire or Second Babylonian Empire, historically known as the Chaldean Empire, was the last polity ruled by monarchs native to ancient Mesopotamia. Beginning with the coronation of Nabopolassar as the King of Babylon in 626 BC ...

, and

Achaemenid The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenian Empire, also known as the Persian Empire or First Persian Empire (; , , ), was an Iranian empire founded by Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid dynasty in 550 BC. Based in modern-day Iran, it was the large ...

empires (722–330 BC) and remained a common language of the region in the first century AD. In spite of the increasing importance of Greek, the use of Aramaic was also expanding, and it would eventually be dominant among Jews both in the

Holy Land The term "Holy Land" is used to collectively denote areas of the Southern Levant that hold great significance in the Abrahamic religions, primarily because of their association with people and events featured in the Bible. It is traditionall ...

and elsewhere in the

Middle East The Middle East (term originally coined in English language) is a geopolitical region encompassing the Arabian Peninsula, the Levant, Turkey, Egypt, Iran, and Iraq. The term came into widespread usage by the United Kingdom and western Eur ...

around 200 AD and would remain so until the Islamic conquests in the seventh century.

Dead Sea Scrolls

According to

Dead Sea Scrolls The Dead Sea Scrolls, also called the Qumran Caves Scrolls, are a set of List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts, ancient Jewish manuscripts from the Second Temple period (516 BCE – 70 CE). They were discovered over a period of ten years, between ...

archaeologist

Yigael Yadin Yigael Yadin ( ; 20 March 1917 – 28 June 1984) was an Israeli archeologist, soldier and politician. He was the second Chief of Staff of the Israel Defense Forces and Deputy Prime Minister from 1977 to 1981. Biography Yigael Sukenik (later Y ...

, Aramaic was the language of

Hebrews The Hebrews (; ) were an ancient Semitic-speaking peoples, ancient Semitic-speaking people. Historians mostly consider the Hebrews as synonymous with the Israelites, with the term "Hebrew" denoting an Israelite from the nomadic era, which pre ...

until Simon Bar Kokhba's revolt (132 AD to 135 AD). Yadin noticed the shift from Aramaic to

in the documents he studied, which had been written during the time of the Bar Kokhba revolt. In his book, ''Bar Kokhba: The rediscovery of the legendary hero of the last Jewish Revolt Against Imperial Rome'', Yigael Yadin notes, "It is interesting that the earlier documents are written in Aramaic while the later ones are in Hebrew. Possibly the change was made by a special decree of Bar Kokhba who wanted to restore Hebrew as the official language of the state". In another book by Sigalit Ben-Zion, Yadin said: "it seems that this change came as a result of the order that was given by Bar Kokhba, who wanted to revive the Hebrew language and make it the official language of the state." Yadin points out that Aramaic was the regional

lingua franca A lingua franca (; ; for plurals see ), also known as a bridge language, common language, trade language, auxiliary language, link language or language of wider communication (LWC), is a Natural language, language systematically used to make co ...

at the time.

Josephus

Hebrew historian

Josephus Flavius Josephus (; , ; ), born Yosef ben Mattityahu (), was a Roman–Jewish historian and military leader. Best known for writing '' The Jewish War'', he was born in Jerusalem—then part of the Roman province of Judea—to a father of pr ...

comments on learning

Greek Greek may refer to: Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...

in first century

Judea Judea or Judaea (; ; , ; ) is a mountainous region of the Levant. Traditionally dominated by the city of Jerusalem, it is now part of Palestine and Israel. The name's usage is historic, having been used in antiquity and still into the pres ...

: In the first century AD, the Aramaic language was widespread throughout the Middle East, as is supported by the testimony of Josephus's ''

The Jewish War ''The Jewish War'' is a work of Jewish history written by Josephus, a first-century Roman-Jewish historian. It has been described by the biblical historian Steve Mason as "perhaps the most influential non-biblical text of Western history". ...

''. Josephus chose to inform people from what are now Iran, Iraq, and remote parts of the

Arabian Peninsula The Arabian Peninsula (, , or , , ) or Arabia, is a peninsula in West Asia, situated north-east of Africa on the Arabian plate. At , comparable in size to India, the Arabian Peninsula is the largest peninsula in the world. Geographically, the ...

about the war of the Jews against the Romans through books he wrote "in the language of our country", prior to translating into Greek for the benefit of the Greeks and Romans: H. St. J. Thackeray (who translated Josephus' ''Jewish Wars'' from Greek into English) also points out, "We learn from the proem that the Greek text was not the first draft of the work. It had been preceded by a narrative written in Aramaic and addressed to "the barbarians in the interior", who are more precisely defined lower down as the natives of Parthia, Babylonia, and

Arabia The Arabian Peninsula (, , or , , ) or Arabia, is a peninsula in West Asia, situated north-east of Africa on the Arabian plate. At , comparable in size to India, the Arabian Peninsula is the largest peninsula in the world. Geographically, the ...

, the Jewish dispersion in

Mesopotamia Mesopotamia is a historical region of West Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent. Today, Mesopotamia is known as present-day Iraq and forms the eastern geographic boundary of ...

, and the inhabitants of Adiabene, a principality of which the reigning house, as was proudly remembered, were converts to

(B. i, 3, 6). Of this Aramaic work the Greek is described as a "version" made for the benefit of the subjects of the Roman Empire, i.e. the Graeco-Roman world at large. In , the "Field of Blood" was known to all the inhabitants of Jerusalem in their own language as ''

Akeldama Akeldama (Aramaic: חקל דמא or 𐡇𐡒𐡋 𐡃𐡌𐡀 ''Ḥaqel D'ma'', "field of blood"; Hebrew: חקל דמא; Arabic: حقل الدم, ''Ḥaqel Ad-dam'') is the Aramaic name for a place in Jerusalem associated with Judas Iscariot, o ...

'', which is the transliteration of the Aramaic words "Haqal Dama". Josephus differentiated Hebrew from his language and that of first-century Israel. Josephus refers to Hebrew words as belonging to "the Hebrew tongue" but refers to Aramaic words as belonging to "our tongue" or "our language" or "the language of our country". Josephus refers to a Hebrew word with the phrase "the Hebrew tongue": "But the affairs of the

Canaanites {{Cat main, Canaan See also: * :Ancient Israel and Judah Ancient Levant Hebrew Bible nations Ancient Lebanon 0050 Ancient Syria Wikipedia categories named after regions 0050 0050 Phoenicia Amarna Age civilizations ...

were at this time in a flourishing condition, and they expected the Israelites with a great army at the city Bezek, having put the government into the hands of

Adonibezek Adoni-Bezek, ( ''’Aḏōnī-Ḇezeq'', "lord of Bezek"), also written Adonibezek or Adoni Bezek, was a Canaanite monarch, king referred to in the Book of Judges ( ). Previous to the occupation of Canaan by the Israelites, he had subdued seventy ...

, which name denotes the Lord of Bezek, for Adoni in the Hebrew tongue signifies Lord." In this example, Josephus refers to an Aramaic word as belonging to "our language": "This new-built part of the city was called ' Bezetha,' in our language, which, if interpreted in the Grecian language, may be called 'the New City.'" On several occasions in the New Testament, Aramaic words are called Hebrew. For example, in (KJV), the gospel-writer narrates that Jesus, "bearing his cross went forth into a place called the place of a skull, which is called in the Hebrew

Golgotha Calvary ( or ) or Golgotha () was a site immediately outside Jerusalem's walls where, according to Christianity's four canonical gospels, Jesus was crucified. Since at least the early medieval period, it has been a destination for pilgrimage. ...

." The last word is, in fact, Aramaic. The word "Golgotha" is a transliteration of an Aramaic word, because ''-tha'' in ''Golgotha'' is the Aramaic definite article on a feminine noun in an emphatic state.

Aramaic phrases in the Greek New Testament

The Greek

New Testament The New Testament (NT) is the second division of the Christian biblical canon. It discusses the teachings and person of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus, as well as events relating to Christianity in the 1st century, first-century Christianit ...

transliterates a few Semitic words. When the text refers to the language of such Semitic glosses, it uses words meaning "Hebrew"/"Jewish" (Acts 21:40; 22:2; 26:14: , ) but this term is often applied to unmistakably Aramaic words and phrases; for this reason, it is often interpreted as meaning "the (Aramaic) vernacular of the Jews" in recent translations. A small minority of scholars believe that most or all of the

was originally written in Aramaic. This theory is known as Aramaic primacy.

()

In the

Gospel of Mark The Gospel of Mark is the second of the four canonical Gospels and one of the three synoptic Gospels, synoptic Gospels. It tells of the ministry of Jesus from baptism of Jesus, his baptism by John the Baptist to his death, the Burial of Jesus, ...

, 5:41: This verse gives an Aramaic phrase, attributed to Jesus bringing the girl back to life, with a

transliteration Transliteration is a type of conversion of a text from one script to another that involves swapping letters (thus '' trans-'' + '' liter-'') in predictable ways, such as Greek → and → the digraph , Cyrillic → , Armenian → or L ...

into Greek, as . A few Greek

manuscript A manuscript (abbreviated MS for singular and MSS for plural) was, traditionally, any document written by hand or typewritten, as opposed to mechanically printed or reproduced in some indirect or automated way. More recently, the term has ...

s (

Codex Sinaiticus The Codex Sinaiticus (; Shelfmark: London, British Library, Add MS 43725), also called the Sinai Bible, is a fourth-century Christian manuscript of a Greek Bible, containing the majority of the Greek Old Testament, including the deuterocanonica ...

, Vaticanus) of

Mark's Gospel The Gospel of Mark is the second of the four canonical Gospels and one of the three synoptic Gospels. It tells of the ministry of Jesus from his baptism by John the Baptist to his death, the burial of his body, and the discovery of his empt ...

have this form of the text, but others (

Codex Alexandrinus The Codex Alexandrinus (London, British Library, Royal MS 1. D. V-VIII) is a manuscript of the Greek Bible,The Greek Bible in this context refers to the Bible used by Greek-speaking Christians who lived in Egypt and elsewhere during the early ...

, the text-type known as the

Majority Text In the textual criticism of the New Testament, the Byzantine text-type (also called Traditional Text, Ecclesiastical Text, Constantinopolitan Text, Antiocheian Text, or Syrian Text) is one of the main text types. The New Testament text of the Eas ...

, and also the

Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...

Vulgate The Vulgate () is a late-4th-century Bible translations into Latin, Latin translation of the Bible. It is largely the work of Saint Jerome who, in 382, had been commissioned by Pope Damasus I to revise the Gospels used by the Diocese of ...

) write (''koumi'', cumi) instead. The latter is in the

Textus Receptus The (Latin for 'received text') is the succession of printed Greek New Testament texts starting with Erasmus' ''Novum Instrumentum omne'' (1516) and including the editions of Robert Estienne, Stephanus, Theodore Beza, Beza, the House of Elzevir ...

and is the version which appears in the

KJV The King James Version (KJV), also the King James Bible (KJB) and the Authorized Version (AV), is an Early Modern English translation of the Christian Bible for the Church of England, which was commissioned in 1604 and published in 1611, by ...

. The Aramaic is ''ṭlīthā qūm''. The word ''ṭlīthā'' is the feminine form of the word ''ṭlē'', meaning "young". ''Qūm'' is the Aramaic verb 'to rise, stand, get up'. In the feminine singular imperative, it was originally ''qūmī''. However, there is evidence that in speech, the final ''-ī'' was dropped so the imperative did not distinguish between

masculine Masculinity (also called manhood or manliness) is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with men and boys. Masculinity can be theoretically understood as socially constructed, and there is also evidence that some beh ...

and

feminine gender In linguistics, a grammatical gender system is a specific form of a noun class system, where nouns are assigned to gender categories that are often not related to the real-world qualities of the entities denoted by those nouns. In languages wit ...

s. The older manuscripts, therefore, used a Greek spelling that reflected pronunciation, whereas the addition of an 'ι' was perhaps due to a bookish

copyist A copyist is a person who makes duplications of the same thing. The modern use of the term is mainly confined to music copyists, who are employed by the music industry to produce neat copies from a composer or arranger's manuscript. However, the ...

. In square script Aramaic, it could be טליתא קומי or טליתא קום.

Ephphatha (Ἐφφαθά)

Mark Mark may refer to: In the Bible * Mark the Evangelist (5–68), traditionally ascribed author of the Gospel of Mark * Gospel of Mark, one of the four canonical gospels and one of the three synoptic gospels Currencies * Mark (currency), a currenc ...

: ''And looking up to heaven, he sighed and said to him, "Ephphatha," which is 'be opened'.'' Once again, the Aramaic word is given with the transliteration, only this time, the word to be transliterated is more complicated. In Greek, the Aramaic is written ἐφφαθά. This could be from the Aramaic ''ethpthaḥ'', the passive imperative of the verb ''pthaḥ'', 'to open', since the ''th'' could assimilate in western Aramaic. The pharyngeal '' ḥ'' was often omitted in Greek transcriptions in the

Septuagint The Septuagint ( ), sometimes referred to as the Greek Old Testament or The Translation of the Seventy (), and abbreviated as LXX, is the earliest extant Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible from the original Biblical Hebrew. The full Greek ...

(Greek Old Testament) and was also softened in Galilean speech. In Aramaic, it could be אתפתח or אפתח. This word was adopted as the official motto of

Gallaudet University Gallaudet University ( ) is a private federally chartered university in Washington, D.C., for the education of the deaf and hard of hearing. It was founded in 1864 as a grammar school for both deaf and blind children. It was the first school ...

, the

United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...

' most prominent school for the

deaf Deafness has varying definitions in cultural and medical contexts. In medical contexts, the meaning of deafness is hearing loss that precludes a person from understanding spoken language, an audiological condition. In this context it is written ...

Abba (Ἀββά �

14:36 :''"Abba, Father," he said, "everything is possible for you. Take this cup from me. Yet not what I will, but what you will."'' Galatians 4:6 :''Because you are his sons, God sent the Spirit of his Son into our hearts, the Spirit who calls out, "Abba, Father."'' Romans 8:15 :''The Spirit you received does not make you slaves, so that you live in fear again; rather, the Spirit you received brought about your adoption to sonship. And by him we cry, "Abba, Father."''

Abba ABBA ( ) were a Swedish pop group formed in Stockholm in 1972 by Agnetha Fältskog, Björn Ulvaeus, Benny Andersson, and Anni-Frid Lyngstad. They are one of the most popular and successful musical groups of all time, and are one of the List ...

, an originally Aramaic form borrowed into the Greek Old Testament as a name (2Chr 29:1) tanding for the Hebrew ''Abijah'' () common in

Mishnaic Hebrew Mishnaic Hebrew () is the Hebrew language used in Talmudic texts. Mishnaic Hebrew can be sub-divided into Mishnaic Hebrew proper (c. 1–200 CE, also called Tannaim, Tannaitic Hebrew, Early Rabbinic Hebrew, or Mishnah, Mishnaic Hebrew I), which w ...

and still used in

Modern Hebrew Modern Hebrew (, or ), also known as Israeli Hebrew or simply Hebrew, is the Standard language, standard form of the Hebrew language spoken today. It is the only surviving Canaanite language, as well as one of the List of languages by first w ...

Greenspahn, Frederick E. 2003. An introduction to Aramaic. P.25 (written Αββά �in Greek, and ''’abbā'' in Aramaic), is immediately followed by the Greek equivalent (Πατήρ) with no explicit mention of it being a translation. In Aramaic, it would be אבא. Note, the name

Barabbas According to the New Testament, Barabbas () was a Jewish bandit and rabble-rouser who was imprisoned by the Judaea (Roman province), Roman occupation in Jerusalem, only to be chosen over Jesus by a crowd to be pardoned by Roman governor Pontius ...

is a

Hellenization Hellenization or Hellenification is the adoption of Greek culture, religion, language, and identity by non-Greeks. In the ancient period, colonisation often led to the Hellenisation of indigenous people in the Hellenistic period, many of the ...

of the Aramaic ''Bar Abba'' (בר אבא), literally "Son of the Father".

Raca (Ρακά)

Matthew 5:22 :''But I say unto you, That whosoever is angry with his brother ithout a causeshall be in danger of the judgment: and whosoever shall say to his brother, Raca, shall be in danger of the council: but whosoever shall say, Thou fool, shall be in danger of hell fire.'' (The bracketed text does not appear in all

recension Recension is the practice of editing or revising a text based on critical analysis. When referring to manuscripts, this may be a revision by another author. The term is derived from the Latin ("review, analysis"). In textual criticism (as is the ...

s and is absent in the Latin

.) Raca, or ''Raka'', in the Aramaic and Hebrew of the

Talmud The Talmud (; ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law (''halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of Haskalah#Effects, modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the cen ...

, means empty one, fool, empty head. In Aramaic, it could be ריקא or ריקה.

Mammon (Μαμωνάς)

Gospel of Matthew The Gospel of Matthew is the first book of the New Testament of the Bible and one of the three synoptic Gospels. It tells the story of who the author believes is Israel's messiah (Christ (title), Christ), Jesus, resurrection of Jesus, his res ...

6:24 :''No one can serve two masters: for either they will hate the one, and love the other; or else they will hold to the one, and despise the other. You cannot serve God and

mammon Mammon (Aramaic: מָמוֹנָא, māmōnā) in the New Testament is commonly thought to mean money, material wealth, or any entity that promises wealth, and is associated with the greedy pursuit of gain. The Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of ...

.'' Luke 16:9–13 :''And I say unto you, Make to yourselves friends of the mammon of unrighteousness; that, when ye fail, they may receive you into everlasting habitations. He that is faithful in that which is least is faithful also in much: and he that is unjust in the least is unjust also in much. If therefore ye have not been faithful in the unrighteous mammon, who will commit to your trust the true riches? And if ye have not been faithful in that which is another man's, who shall give you that which is your own? No servant can serve two masters: for either he will hate the one, and love the other; or else he will hold to the one, and despise the other. Ye cannot serve God and mammon.'' 2 Clement 6 :''Now the Lord declares, "No servant can serve two masters." If we desire, then, to serve both God and mammon, it will be unprofitable for us. "For what will it profit if a man gain the whole world, and lose his own soul?" This world and the next are two enemies. The one urges to adultery and corruption, avarice and deceit; the other bids farewell to these things. We cannot, therefore, be the friends of both; and it behoves us, by renouncing the one, to make sure of the other. Let us reckon that it is better to hate the things present, since they are trifling, and transient, and corruptible; and to love those ho are to come,as being good and incorruptible. For if we do the will of Christ, we shall find rest; otherwise, nothing shall deliver us from eternal punishment, if we disobey His commandments.'' (Roberts-Donaldson) In Aramaic, it could be ממון (or, in the typical Aramaic "emphatic" state suggested by the Greek ending, ממונא). This is usually considered to be an originally Aramaic word borrowed into Rabbinic Hebrew,Fernández, Miguel Pérez and John Elwolde. 1999. An Introductory Grammar of Rabbinic Hebrew. P.5 but its occurrence in late Biblical Hebrew and, reportedly, in 4th century

Punic The Punic people, usually known as the Carthaginians (and sometimes as Western Phoenicians), were a Semitic people who migrated from Phoenicia to the Western Mediterranean during the Early Iron Age. In modern scholarship, the term ''Punic'' ...

may indicate that it had a more general "common Semitic background". In the New Testament, the word ''Mamōnâs'' is declined like a Greek word, whereas many of the other Aramaic and Hebrew words are treated as indeclinable foreign words.

Rabbuni (Ραββουνί)

:''Jesus saith unto her, Mary. She turned herself, and saith unto him, Rabboni; which is to say, Master.'' (KJV) Also in Mark 10:51. Hebrew form

rabbi A rabbi (; ) is a spiritual leader or religious teacher in Judaism. One becomes a rabbi by being ordained by another rabbi—known as ''semikha''—following a course of study of Jewish history and texts such as the Talmud. The basic form of t ...

used as title of Jesus in Matthew 26:25,49; Mark 9:5, 11:21, 14:45; John 1:38, 1:49, 4:31, 6:25, 9:2, 11:8. In Aramaic, it would have been רבוני.

Maranatha (Μαραναθά)

Didache The ''Didache'' (; ), also known as ''The Lord's Teaching Through the Twelve Apostles to the Nations'' (), is a brief anonymous early Christian treatise ( ancient church order) written in Koine Greek, dated by modern scholars to the first or (l ...

10:6 (Prayer after Communion) :''Let grace come, and let this world pass away.

Hosanna ''Hosanna'' () is a liturgical word in Judaism and Christianity. In Judaism it refers to a cry expressing an appeal for divine help.Friberg Lexicon In Christianity it is used as a cry of praise. Etymology The word ''hosanna'' (Latin ', Greek , ...

to the God (Son) of David! If any one is holy, let him come; if any one is not so, let him repent. Maran-Atha. Amen.'' (Roberts-Donaldson) 1 Corinthians 16:22 :''If any man love not the Lord Jesus Christ, let him be Anathema

Maranatha ''Maranatha'' (Aramaic: ') is an Aramaic phrase which occurs once in the New Testament (). It also appears in Didache 10:14. It is transliterated into Greek letters rather than translated and, given the nature of early manuscripts, the lexical ...

.'' Depending on how one selects to split the single Greek expression of the early manuscripts into Aramaic, it could be either מרנא תא (''marana tha'', "Lord, come!") or מרן אתא (''maran atha'', "Our Lord has come").

Eli, Eli, lema sabachthani (Ἠλί, Ἠλί, λεμὰ σαβαχθανί)

This phrase, one of the seven sayings of Jesus on the cross, is given in two versions: in the

, it is transliterated in Greek as Ἠλί, Ἠλί, λεμὰ σαβαχθανί; in the

, it is given as Ἐλωΐ, Ἐλωΐ, λαμὰ σαβαχθανί. The differences between the two are the use, in Mark, of ''elōi'' rather than ''ēli'', and of ''lama'' rather than ''lema''. Overall, both versions can be said to be in

Aramaic Aramaic (; ) is a Northwest Semitic language that originated in the ancient region of Syria and quickly spread to Mesopotamia, the southern Levant, Sinai, southeastern Anatolia, and Eastern Arabia, where it has been continually written a ...

, rather than in

, because of the verb (''šbq'') "abandon", which exists only in Aramaic.Greenspahn, Frederick E. 2003. An introduction to Aramaic. P.25Davies, William D. and Dale C. Allison. 1997. Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel According to Saint Matthew. Volume III. P.624 The Biblical Hebrew counterpart to this word, (''‘zb'') is seen in the second verse of the

Old Testament The Old Testament (OT) is the first division of the Christian biblical canon, which is based primarily upon the 24 books of the Hebrew Bible, or Tanakh, a collection of ancient religious Hebrew and occasionally Aramaic writings by the Isr ...

Psalm 22 Psalm 22 of the Book of Psalms (the hind of the dawn) or My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me? is a psalm in the Bible. The Book of Psalms is part of the third section of the Tanakh, and a book of the Old Testament of the Bible. In the s ...

, which the saying appears to quote. Thus, Jesus is not quoting the canonical Hebrew version (''ēlī ēlī lāmā ‘azabtānī''), which the psalm claims was of

King David David (; , "beloved one") was a king of ancient Israel and Judah and the third king of the United Monarchy, according to the Hebrew Bible and Old Testament. The Tel Dan stele, an Aramaic-inscribed stone erected by a king of Aram-Damas ...

, but rather the version in an Aramaic

Targum A targum (, ''interpretation'', ''translation'', ''version''; plural: targumim) was an originally spoken translation of the Hebrew Bible (also called the ) that a professional translator ( ''mǝṯurgǝmān'') would give in the common language o ...

(translation of the Bible). Surviving Aramaic Targums do use the verb ''šbq'' in their translations of the Psalm 22. The word used in the Gospel of Mark for "my god", Ἐλωΐ, corresponds to the Aramaic form אלהי, '' elāhī''. The one used in Matthew, Ἠλί, fits in better with the אלי of the original Hebrew Psalm, as has been pointed out in the literature; however, it may also be Aramaic because this form is attested abundantly in Aramaic as well. In the next verse, in both accounts, some who hear Jesus' cry imagine that he is calling for help from

Elijah Elijah ( ) or Elias was a prophet and miracle worker who lived in the northern kingdom of Israel during the reign of King Ahab (9th century BC), according to the Books of Kings in the Hebrew Bible. In 1 Kings 18, Elijah defended the worsh ...

(''Ēlīyā'' in Aramaic). Almost all ancient Greek manuscripts show signs of trying to normalize the two slightly different versions of Jesus's saying, presented in Mark and Matthew. For instance, the peculiar

Codex Bezae The Codex Bezae Cantabrigiensis is a bi-lingual Greek and Latin manuscript of the New Testament written in an uncial hand on parchment. It is designated by the siglum D or 05 in the Gregory-Aland numbering of New Testament manuscripts, and � ...

renders both versions with ηλι ηλι λαμα ζαφθανι (''ēli ēli lama zaphthani''). The Alexandrian, Western and Caesarean textual families all reflect harmonization of the texts between Matthew and Mark. Only the Byzantine textual tradition preserves a distinction. The Aramaic word form ''šəḇaqtanī'' is based on the verb ''šǝḇaq''/''šāḇaq'', 'to allow, to permit, to forgive, and to forsake', with the perfect aspect ending ''-t'' (second person singular: 'you'), and the object suffix ''-anī'' (first person singular: 'me'). The most likely rendition of the phrase in its original Aramaic, as said by Jesus, would have been "אלי, אלי, למה שבקתני",

transliterated Transliteration is a type of conversion of a text from one writing system, script to another that involves swapping Letter (alphabet), letters (thus ''wikt:trans-#Prefix, trans-'' + ''wikt:littera#Latin, liter-'') in predictable ways, such as ...

as ''Eli, Eli, ləmā šəḇaqtanī.'' In Hebrew, the saying would be "" (''ēlī ēlī, lāmā ‘azabtānī'' in

Biblical Hebrew Biblical Hebrew ( or ), also called Classical Hebrew, is an archaic form of the Hebrew language, a language in the Canaanite languages, Canaanitic branch of the Semitic languages spoken by the Israelites in the area known as the Land of Isra ...

, ''eli eli lama azavtani'' in

pronunciation), while the Syriac-Aramaic phrase according to the

Peshitta The Peshitta ( ''or'' ') is the standard Syriac edition of the Bible for Syriac Christian churches and traditions that follow the liturgies of the Syriac Rites. The Peshitta is originally and traditionally written in the Classical Syriac d ...

would be (Matthew 27:46) or (Mark 15:34). This saying is taken by some as an abandonment of the Son by the Father. Another interpretation holds that at the moment when Jesus took upon himself the sins of humanity, the Father had to turn away from the Son because the Father is "of purer eyes than to see evil and cannot look at wrong" ( ESV). Other theologians understand the cry as that of one who was truly human and who felt forsaken. Put to death by his foes, very largely deserted by his friends, he may have also felt deserted by God. Others see these words in the context of Psalm 22 and suggest that Jesus recited these words, perhaps even the whole psalm, "that he might show himself to be the very Being to whom the words refer; so that the Jewish scribes and people might examine and see the cause why he would not descend from the cross; namely, because this very psalm showed that it was appointed that he should suffer these things."

Jot and tittle ()

Matthew 5:18 :''For assuredly, I say to you, till heaven and earth pass away, one jot or one tittle will by no means pass from the Law (that is, the Torah) till all is fulfilled.'' The quotation uses them as an example of extremely minor details. In the

text translated as English jot and tittle is found ''iota'' and ''keraia''.

Iota Iota (; uppercase Ι, lowercase ι; ) is the ninth letter of the Greek alphabet. It was derived from the Phoenician letter Yodh. Letters that arose from this letter include the Latin I and J, the Cyrillic І (І, і), Yi (Ї, ї), and J ...

is the smallest letter of the Greek alphabet (ι), but since only

capitals Capital and its variations may refer to: Common uses * Capital city, a municipality of primary status ** Capital region, a metropolitan region containing the capital ** List of national capitals * Capital letter, an upper-case letter Econom ...

were used at the time the Greek New Testament was written (Ι; still, it is the smallest of all the Greek majuscules) and because the Torah was written in Hebrew, it probably represents the Hebrew

yodh Yodh (also spelled jodh, yod, or jod) is the tenth letter of the Semitic abjads, including Phoenician ''yōd'' 𐤉, Hebrew ''yod'' , Aramaic ''yod'' 𐡉, Syriac ''yōḏ'' ܝ, and Arabic ''yāʾ'' . It is also related to the Ancient Nort ...

(י) which is the smallest letter of the

Hebrew alphabet The Hebrew alphabet (, ), known variously by scholars as the Ktav Ashuri, Jewish script, square script and block script, is a unicase, unicameral abjad script used in the writing of the Hebrew language and other Jewish languages, most notably ...

. ''Keraia'' is a hook or

serif In typography, a serif () is a small line or stroke regularly attached to the end of a larger stroke in a letter or symbol within a particular font or family of fonts. A typeface or "font family" making use of serifs is called a serif typeface ( ...

Korban (Κορβάν)

Matthew 27:6 :''But the chief priests, taking the pieces of silver, said, ‘It is not lawful to put them into the treasury, since they are blood money.’'' In Aramaic (קרבנא) it refers to the treasury in the

Temple in Jerusalem The Temple in Jerusalem, or alternatively the Holy Temple (; , ), refers to the two religious structures that served as the central places of worship for Israelites and Jews on the modern-day Temple Mount in the Old City of Jerusalem. Accord ...

, derived from the Hebrew

Korban In Judaism, the (), also spelled or , is any of a variety of sacrificial offerings described and commanded in the Torah. The plural form is , , or . The term primarily refers to sacrificial offerings given from humans to God for the pur ...

(קרבן), found in Mark 7:11 and the

(in Greek transliteration), meaning ''religious gift'' or ''offering''. The Greek is declined as a Greek noun, much like other examples.

Sikera (Σίκερα)

Luke 1:15 :''for he will be great in the sight of the Lord. He must never drink wine or strong drink; even before his birth he will be filled with the Holy Spirit.''

Hosanna ()

11:9 :''Then those who went ahead and those who followed were shouting,

! Blessed is the one who comes in the name of the Lord!'' This word is derived from הושע נא. It is generally considered to be a quote from

Psalms The Book of Psalms ( , ; ; ; ; , in Islam also called Zabur, ), also known as the Psalter, is the first book of the third section of the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) called ('Writings'), and a book of the Old Testament. The book is an anthology of B ...

118:25 "O , save (us)", but the original Biblical Hebrew form was הושיעה נא (''hōšî‘āh nā''). The shortened form הושע could be either Aramaic or Hebrew.

Aramaic personal names in the New Testament

Personal names in the New Testament come from a number of languages; Hebrew and Greek are most common. However, there are a few Aramaic names as well. The most prominent feature in Aramaic names is ''bar'' (Greek transliteration βαρ, Aramaic ''bar''), meaning 'son of', a common

patronym A patronymic, or patronym, is a component of a personal name based on the given name of one's father, grandfather (more specifically an avonymic), or an earlier male ancestor. It is the male equivalent of a matronymic. Patronymics are used, ...

prefix. Its Hebrew equivalent, ''ben'', is conspicuous by its absence. Some examples are: * –

Bartholomew Bartholomew was one of the twelve apostles of Jesus according to the New Testament. Most scholars today identify Bartholomew as Nathanael, who appears in the Gospel of John (1:45–51; cf. 21:2). New Testament references The name ''Bartholomew ...

(Βαρθολομαῖος from ''bar-Tōlmay'', perhaps "son of furrows" or "ploughman"). * – Simon bar-Jona (Σίμων Βαριωνᾶς from ''Šim‘ōn bar-Yōnā'', "Simon son of Jonah"). * – Simon bar-Jochanan ("Simon son of John"). * –

(Βαραββᾶς from ''bar-Abbā'', "son of the father"). * – Bartimaeus (Βαρτιμαῖος possibly from combination of Aramaic ''bar'' and Greek ''timaios'' meaning "honorable" or "highly prized", perhaps "honorable son"). * – Barsabbas (Βαρσαββᾶς from ''bar-Šabbā'', "son of the

Sabbath In Abrahamic religions, the Sabbath () or Shabbat (from Hebrew ) is a day set aside for rest and worship. According to the Book of Exodus, the Sabbath is a day of rest on the seventh day, Ten Commandments, commanded by God to be kept as a Holid ...

"). * – Joseph who is called

Barnabas Barnabas (; ; ), born Joseph () or Joses (), was according to tradition an early Christians, Christian, one of the prominent Disciple (Christianity), Christian disciples in Jerusalem. According to Acts 4:36, Barnabas was a Cypriot Jews, Cyprio ...

(Βαρνάβας from ''bar-Navā'' meaning "son of prophecy", "the prophet", but given the Greek translation υἱὸς παρακλήσεως; usually translated as "son of consolation/encouragement", the Greek could mean "invocation" as well). * –

Bar-Jesus Elymas (; ; ), also known as Bar-Jesus (, , ), is a character described in the Acts of the Apostles, chapter 13, where he is referred to as a ''mágos'' (μάγος), which the King James Version of the Bible, King James Bible translates as "sorce ...

(Βαριησοῦς from ''bar-Išo'', "son of Jesus/Joshua").

Boanerges (Βοανηργές)

3:17 : ''And James, the son of Zebedee, and John, the brother of James, and he gave them the name Boanerges, which is Sons of Thunder.'' Jesus surnames the brothers James and

John John is a common English name and surname: * John (given name) * John (surname) John may also refer to: New Testament Works * Gospel of John, a title often shortened to John * First Epistle of John, often shortened to 1 John * Second E ...

to reflect their impetuosity. The Greek rendition of their name is Βοανηργές (Boanērges). The name ' has given rise to much speculation. Given the Greek translation provided by the Biblical text ('Sons of Thunder'), it seems that the first element of the name is ''bnē'', 'sons of' (the plural of 'bar'), Aramaic (בני). This is represented by βοάνη (boanē), giving two vowels in the first syllable where one would be sufficient. It could be inferred from this that the Greek transliteration may not be a good one. The second part of the name is often reckoned to be ''rḡaš'' ('tumult') Aramaic (רגיש), or ''rḡaz'' ('anger') Aramaic (רגז). Maurice Casey, however, argues that ''rḡaš'' is a simple misreading of the word for thunder, ''rḡam'' (due to the similarity of the Square script symbols samech and mem, for the Aramaic and final . This is supported by one Syriac translation of the name as ''bnay ra‘mâ''. The

reads ܒܢܝ ܪܓܫܝ ''bnay rḡešy'', which would fit with a later composition for it, based on a Byzantine reading of the original Greek.

Cephas (Κηφᾶς)

1:42 : ''He brought him to Jesus. Jesus looked at him and said, "You are Simon son of John, you shall be called Cephas", which is translated 'Peter'.'' (New International Version)

1 Corinthians The First Epistle to the Corinthians () is one of the Pauline epistles, part of the New Testament of the Christian Bible. The epistle is attributed to Paul the Apostle and a co-author, Sosthenes, and is addressed to the Christian church in Anc ...

1:12 : ''But I say that each of you says "I am of Paul", or "I am of Apollos", or "I am of Cephas", or "I am of Christ".'' Galatians 1:18

NRSV The New Revised Standard Version (NRSV) is a translation of the Bible in American English. It was first published in 1989 by the National Council of Churches, the NRSV was created by an ecumenical committee of scholars "comprising about thirty ...

:''Then after three years I did go up to Jerusalem to visit Cephas and stayed with him for fifteen days;'' In these passages, 'Cephas' is given as the nickname of the apostle better known as

Simon Peter Saint Peter (born Shimon Bar Yonah; 1 BC – AD 64/68), also known as Peter the Apostle, Simon Peter, Simeon, Simon, or Cephas, was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus and one of the first leaders of the early Christian Church. He appears repe ...

. The Greek word is transliterated (Kēphâs). The apostle's given name appears to be Simon, and he is given the Aramaic nickname, ''kēpā'', meaning 'rock' or 'stone'. The final sigma (''ς'') is added in Greek to make the name masculine rather than feminine. That the meaning of the name was more important than the name itself is evidenced by the universal acceptance of the Greek translation, (Petros). It is not known why Paul uses the Aramaic name rather than the Greek name for Simon Peter when he writes to the churches in

Galatia Galatia (; , ''Galatía'') was an ancient area in the highlands of central Anatolia, roughly corresponding to the provinces of Ankara and Eskişehir in modern Turkey. Galatia was named after the Gauls from Thrace (cf. Tylis), who settled here ...

and

Corinth Corinth ( ; , ) is a municipality in Corinthia in Greece. The successor to the ancient Corinth, ancient city of Corinth, it is a former municipality in Corinthia, Peloponnese (region), Peloponnese, which is located in south-central Greece. Sin ...

. He may have been writing at a time before Cephas came to be popularly known as Peter. According to

Clement of Alexandria Titus Flavius Clemens, also known as Clement of Alexandria (; – ), was a Christian theology, Christian theologian and philosopher who taught at the Catechetical School of Alexandria. Among his pupils were Origen and Alexander of Jerusalem. A ...

, there were two people named Cephas: one was Apostle Simon Peter, and the other was one of Jesus' ''

Seventy Apostles The seventy disciples (Greek: ἑβδομήκοντα μαθητές, ''hebdomikonta mathetes''), known in the Eastern Christian traditions as the seventy apostles (Greek: ἑβδομήκοντα απόστολοι, ''hebdomikonta apostoloi''), w ...

''. Clement goes further to say it was Cephas of the Seventy who was condemned by Paul in Galatians 2 for not eating with the Gentiles, though this is perhaps Clement's way of deflecting the condemnation from Simon Peter. In 1708, a French Jesuit,

Jean Hardouin Jean Hardouin (; ; ; 23 December 1646 – 3 September 1729), was a French priest and classical scholar who was well known during his lifetime for his editions of ancient authors, and for writing a history of the ecumenical councils. However, he ...

, wrote a dissertation that argues "Peter" was actually "another Peter", thus the emphasis of using the name Cephas (Aramaic for ''Peter''). In 1990

Bart D. Ehrman Bart Denton Ehrman (born October 5, 1955) is an American New Testament scholar focusing on textual criticism of the New Testament, the historical Jesus, and the origins and development of early Christianity. He has written and edited 30 books ...

wrote an article on the ''

Journal of Biblical Literature The ''Journal of Biblical Literature'' (''JBL'') is one of three academic journal An academic journal (or scholarly journal or scientific journal) is a periodical publication in which Scholarly method, scholarship relating to a particular academ ...

'', similarly arguing that Peter and Cephas should be understood as different people, citing the writing of

and the

Epistula Apostolorum The Epistle of the Apostles () is a work of New Testament apocrypha. Despite its name, it is more a gospel or an apocalypse than an epistle. The work takes the form of an open letter purportedly from the remaining eleven apostles describing k ...

and in support of his theory; Ehrman's article received a detailed critique by

Dale Allison Dale C. Allison Jr. (born November 25, 1955) is an American historian and Christian theologian. His areas of expertise include the historical Jesus, the Gospel of Matthew, Second Temple Jewish literature, and the history of the interpretation ...

, who argued that Peter and Cephas are the same person. Ehrman later retracted his proposal, deeming it "highly unlikely". In Aramaic, it could be כיפא.

Thomas (Θωμᾶς)

11:16 : ''Then Thomas, who was called Didymus, said to his co-disciples, "Now let us go that we might die with him!"''

Thomas Thomas may refer to: People * List of people with given name Thomas * Thomas (name) * Thomas (surname) * Saint Thomas (disambiguation) * Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) Italian Dominican friar, philosopher, and Doctor of the Church * Thomas the A ...

() is listed among the disciples of Jesus in all four gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. However, it is only in John's Gospel that more information is given. In three places (John 11:16, 20:24 and 21:2), he is given the name Didymus (), the Greek word for a twin. In fact, "the Twin" is not just a surname, it is a translation of "Thomas". The Greek —Thōmâs—comes from the Aramaic ''tōmā'', "twin". Therefore, rather than two personal names, Thomas Didymus, there is a single nickname, the Twin. Christian tradition gives him the personal name Judas, and he was perhaps named Thomas to distinguish him from others of the same name. In Aramaic, it could be ܬܐܘܡܐ.

Tabitha (Ταβιθά)

Acts The Acts of the Apostles (, ''Práxeis Apostólōn''; ) is the fifth book of the New Testament; it tells of the founding of the Christian Church and the spread of its message to the Roman Empire. Acts and the Gospel of Luke make up a two-par ...

9:36 : ''In Joppa, there was a disciple named Tabitha, which is translated

Dorcas Dorcas (), or Tabitha (), was an early disciple (Christianity), disciple of Jesus mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles (, see discussion Acts 9#The healing of Tabitha (9:36–43), here). She lived in the port city of Jaffa, Joppa, today absorb ...

.'' The disciple's name is given both in Aramaic (Ταβιθά) and Greek (Δορκάς). The Aramaic name is a transliteration of ''Ṭḇīthā'', the female form of (''Ṭaḇyā''). Both names mean 'gazelle'. It may be just coincidence that

Peter Peter may refer to: People * List of people named Peter, a list of people and fictional characters with the given name * Peter (given name) ** Saint Peter (died 60s), apostle of Jesus, leader of the early Christian Church * Peter (surname), a su ...

's words to her in verse 40, "Tabitha, get up!" (), are similar to the " talitha kum" phrase used by Jesus. In Aramaic, it could be טביתא.

Aramaic place names in the New Testament

Gethsemane (Γεθσημανῆ)

Matthew 26:36 : ''Then Jesus went with them to a place called

Gethsemane Gethsemane ( ) is a garden at the foot of the Mount of Olives in East Jerusalem, where, according to the four Gospels of the New Testament, Jesus Christ underwent the Agony in the Garden and was arrested before his crucifixion. The garden is ...

.''

14:32 : ''And they went to a place that has the name

.'' The place where Jesus takes his disciples to pray before his arrest is given the Greek transliteration Γεθσημανῆ (Gethsēmanē). It represents the Aramaic ''Gath-Šmānē'', meaning 'the oil press' or 'oil vat' (referring to olive oil). In Aramaic, it could be ܓܕܣܡܢ. This place name is more properly an Aramaized version of an original Hebrew place name. ''Gath'' גת is a normal word for press in Hebrew, generally used for a wine press not an olive press though; and ''shemanei'' שמני is the Hebrew word ''shemanim'' שמנים meaning "oils", the plural form of the word ''shemen'' שמן, the primary Hebrew word for oil, just in a construct form (''-ei'' instead of the ordinary plural suffix ''-im''). The word in Aramaic for "oil" is more properly ''mišḥa'' (משחא), as also attested in

Jewish Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, rel ...

writings in Aramaic from the

(see Caspar Levias, A Grammar of Galilean Aramaic, Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1986).

Golgotha (Γολγοθᾶ)

15:22 : ''And they took him up to the place

, which is translated Place of the Skull.''

19:17 : ''And carrying his cross by himself, he went out to the so-called Place of the Skull, which is called in 'Hebrew'

.'' ''Gagūltā'' Aramaic, means 'skull'. The name appears in all of the gospels except Luke, which calls the place simply ''Kranion'' (Κρανίον) 'the Skull' in Greek, with no Semitic counterpart. The name '

Calvary Calvary ( or ) or Golgotha () was a site immediately outside Jerusalem's walls where, according to Christianity's four canonical gospels, Jesus was crucified. Since at least the early medieval period, it has been a destination for pilgrimage. ...

' is taken from the Latin

translation, Calvaria. In Aramaic, it could be ܓܓܘܠܬܐ. Though this word has the Aramaic final form ''-ta'' / ''-tha'', it is otherwise also closer to the

word for skull, ''gulgolet'' גולגולת, than to the Aramaic form.

Gabbatha (Γαββαθᾶ)

19:13 : ''When Pilate heard these words, he brought Jesus outside and sat on the judge's bench at a place called The Stone Pavement, or in Hebrew, Gabbatha.'' The place name appears to be Aramaic. According to Josephus, ''War'', V.ii.1, #51, the word ''Gabath'' means ''high place'', or ''elevated place'', so perhaps a raised flat area near the temple. The final "א" could then represent the emphatic state of the noun. In Aramaic, it could be גבהתא.

Akeldama (Ἀκελδαμά)

1:19 : ''And this became known to all the inhabitants of Jerusalem, so that field was called, in their own dialect,

, that is Field of Blood.'' The place of

Judas Iscariot Judas Iscariot (; ; died AD) was, according to Christianity's four canonical gospels, one of the original Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ. Judas betrayed Jesus to the Sanhedrin in the Garden of Gethsemane, in exchange for thirty pieces of sil ...

's death is clearly named Field of Blood in Greek. However, the manuscript tradition gives a number of different spellings of the Aramaic. The

reads Ἀκελδαμά (''Akeldama''); other manuscript versions give Ἀχελδαμάχ (''Acheldamach''), Ἁκελδαμά (''Hakeldama''), Ἁχελδαμά (''Hacheldama'') and Ἁκελδαμάχ (''Hakeldamach''). Despite these variant spellings the Aramaic is most probably ''ḥqēl dmā'', 'field of blood'. While the seemingly gratuitous Greek sound of ''kh'' at the end of the word is difficult to explain, the Septuagint similarly adds this sound to the end of the Semitic name

Ben Sira Ben Sira or Joshua ben Sirach (; ) was a Hellenistic Jewish scribe, sage, and allegorist from Seleucid-controlled Jerusalem of the Second Temple period. He is the author of the Book of Sirach, also known as "Ecclesiasticus". Ben Sirach w ...

to form the Greek name for the Book of ''Sirakh'' (). The sound may be a dialectic feature of either the Greek speakers or the original Semitic language speakers. In Aramaic, it could be חקל דמא.

Pool of Bethesda (Βηθεσδά)

5:2 : ''Now there is in Jerusalem near the Sheep Gate a pool, which in Aramaic is called Bethesda and which is surrounded by five covered colonnades.'' ''Bethesda'' was originally the name of a pool in

Jerusalem Jerusalem is a city in the Southern Levant, on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is one of the List of oldest continuously inhabited cities, oldest cities in the world, and ...

, on the path of the Beth Zeta Valley, and is also known as the ''Sheep Pool''. Its name in Aramaic means "House of Grace". It is associated with

healing With physical trauma or disease suffered by an organism, healing involves the repairing of damaged tissue(s), organs and the biological system as a whole and resumption of (normal) functioning. Medicine includes the process by which the cells ...

. In John 5,

Jesus Jesus (AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ, Jesus of Nazareth, and many Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament, other names and titles, was a 1st-century Jewish preacher and religious leader. He is the Jesus in Chris ...

was reported healing a man at the pool. For other Aramaic place names in the New Testament beginning with ''beth'' ("house of"), see Bethabara,

Bethany Bethany (,Murphy-O'Connor, 2008, p152/ref> Syriac language, Syriac: ܒܝܬ ܥܢܝܐ ''Bēṯ ʿAnyā''), locally called in Palestinian Arabic, Arabic Al-Eizariya or al-Aizariya (, "Arabic nouns and adjectives#Nisba,

lace Lace is a delicate fabric made of yarn or thread in an open weblike pattern, made by machine or by hand. Generally, lace is split into two main categories, needlelace and bobbin lace, although there are other types of lace, such as knitted o ...

of Lazarus (name), L ...

Bethphage Bethphage (; ) or Bethsphage, is a Christian religious site on the Mount of Olives east of historical Jerusalem. The Synoptic Gospels mention Jesus stopping in Bethphage before his triumphal entry into Jerusalem. There is an annual Catholic Pa ...

and

Bethsaida Bethsaida ( ; from ; from Aramaic and , , from the Hebrew root ; ), also known as Julias or Julia (), is a place mentioned in the New Testament. Julias lay in an administrative district known as Gaulonitis, in modern-day Golan Heights. Histor ...

and

Bethlehem Bethlehem is a city in the West Bank, Palestine, located about south of Jerusalem, and the capital of the Bethlehem Governorate. It had a population of people, as of . The city's economy is strongly linked to Tourism in the State of Palesti ...

. In Aramaic, "Bethesda" could be spelled בית חסדא.

Other languages

Based on the symbolic renaming or nicknaming of some of his

, it is also likely that Jesus or at least one of his apostles knew enough

to converse with non-Judaeans. It is reasonable to assume that Jesus was well versed in

for religious purposes, as it is the liturgical language of

References

Sources

* * * * * * * * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Language Of Jesus 1st-century Christianity

Language and mysticism Jesus