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or bean curd is a food prepared by
coagulating Coagulation, also known as clotting, is the process by which blood changes from a liquid to a gel, forming a thrombus, blood clot. It results in hemostasis, the cessation of blood loss from a damaged vessel, followed by repair. The process of co ...
soy milk Soy milk (or soymilk), also known as soya milk, is a plant-based milk produced by soaking and grinding soybeans, boiling the mixture, and filtering out remaining particulates. It is a stable emulsion of oil, water, and protein. Its original ...
and then pressing the resulting
curd Curd is obtained by Denaturation (biochemistry), coagulating milk in a sequential process called curdling. It can be a final dairy product or the first stage in cheesemaking. The coagulation can be caused by adding rennet, a Kefir cheese, ...
s into solid white blocks of varying softness: ''silken'', ''soft'', ''firm'', and ''extra (or super) firm''. It originated in China and has been consumed in the country for over 2,000 years. Tofu is a traditional component of many
East Asian East Asia is a geocultural region of Asia. It includes China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan, plus two special administrative regions of China, Hong Kong and Macau. The economies of Economy of China, China, Economy of Ja ...
and
Southeast Asian Southeast Asia is the geographical southeastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of China, east of the Indian subcontinent, and northwest of the Australian mainland, which is part of Oceania. Southeast Asia is ...
cuisines; in modern Western cooking, it is often used as a meat substitute. Nutritionally, tofu is low in
calorie The calorie is a unit of energy that originated from the caloric theory of heat. The large calorie, food calorie, dietary calorie, kilocalorie, or kilogram calorie is defined as the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one liter o ...
s, while containing a relatively large amount of
protein Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residue (biochemistry), residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including Enzyme catalysis, catalysing metab ...
. It is a high and reliable source of
iron Iron is a chemical element; it has symbol Fe () and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table. It is, by mass, the most common element on Earth, forming much of Earth's o ...
, and can have a high
calcium Calcium is a chemical element; it has symbol Ca and atomic number 20. As an alkaline earth metal, calcium is a reactive metal that forms a dark oxide-nitride layer when exposed to air. Its physical and chemical properties are most similar to it ...
or
magnesium Magnesium is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol Mg and atomic number 12. It is a shiny gray metal having a low density, low melting point and high chemical reactivity. Like the other alkaline earth metals (group 2 ...
content depending on the coagulants (e.g.
calcium chloride Calcium chloride is an inorganic compound, a Salt (chemistry), salt with the chemical formula . It is a white crystalline solid at room temperature, and it is highly soluble in water. It can be created by neutralising hydrochloric acid with cal ...
,
calcium sulphate Calcium sulfate (or calcium sulphate) is an Inorganic compound, inorganic Salt (chemistry), salt with the chemical formula . It occurs in several Hydrate, hydrated forms; the anhydrous state (known as anhydrite) is a white crystalline solid often ...
,
magnesium sulphate Magnesium sulfate or magnesium sulphate is a chemical compound, a salt with the formula , consisting of magnesium cations (20.19% by mass) and sulfate anions . It is a white crystalline solid, soluble in water but not in ethanol. Magnesium ...
) used in manufacturing. Cultivation of tofu, as a protein-rich food source, has one of the lowest needs for land use (1.3 m²/ 1000 kcal) and emits some of the lowest amount of greenhouse gas emissions (1.6 kg / 100 g protein).


Etymology

The English word "tofu" comes from Japanese ''tōfu'' (). The Japanese ''tofu'', in turn, is a borrowing of Chinese (
Mandarin Mandarin or The Mandarin may refer to: Language * Mandarin Chinese, branch of Chinese originally spoken in northern parts of the country ** Standard Chinese or Modern Standard Mandarin, the official language of China ** Taiwanese Mandarin, Stand ...
: ''dòufǔ; tou4-fu'') 'bean curd, bean ferment'. The earliest documentation of the word in English is in the 1704 translation of Domingo Fernández Navarrete's ''A Collection of Voyages and Travels'', that describes how tofu was made. The word ''towfu'' also appears in a 1770 letter from the English merchant James Flint to
Benjamin Franklin Benjamin Franklin (April 17, 1790) was an American polymath: a writer, scientist, inventor, statesman, diplomat, printer, publisher and Political philosophy, political philosopher.#britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Wood, 2021 Among the m ...
. The term "bean curd(s)" for tofu has been used in the United States since at least 1840.


History

Tofu making was first recorded during the Chinese
Han dynasty The Han dynasty was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC ...
about 2,000 years ago. Chinese legend ascribes its invention to Prince Liu An (179122BC) of
Anhui Anhui is an inland Provinces of China, province located in East China. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze and Huai rivers, bordering Jiangsu and Zhejiang to the east, Jiang ...
province. Tofu and its production technique were introduced to
Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...
during the
Nara period The of the history of Japan covers the years from 710 to 794. Empress Genmei established the capital of Heijō-kyō (present-day Nara). Except for a five-year period (740–745), when the capital was briefly moved again, it remained the capita ...
(710794) but there are no clear records; tofu first appeared on record in 1183. Some scholars believe tofu arrived in
Vietnam Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV), is a country at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of about and a population of over 100 million, making it the world's List of countries and depende ...
during the 10th and 11th centuries. It spread to other parts of
Southeast Asia Southeast Asia is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, southeastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of China, east of the Indian subcontinent, and northwest of the Mainland Au ...
as well. This probably coincided with the spread of
Buddhism Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
as it is an important source of
protein Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residue (biochemistry), residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including Enzyme catalysis, catalysing metab ...
in the vegetarian diet of East Asian Buddhism. Li Shizhen, during the
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of ...
, described a method of making tofu in the '' Compendium of Materia Medica''. Since then, tofu has become a staple in many countries, including
Vietnam Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV), is a country at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of about and a population of over 100 million, making it the world's List of countries and depende ...
,
Thailand Thailand, officially the Kingdom of Thailand and historically known as Siam (the official name until 1939), is a country in Southeast Asia on the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese Peninsula. With a population of almost 66 million, it spa ...
, and
Korea Korea is a peninsular region in East Asia consisting of the Korean Peninsula, Jeju Island, and smaller islands. Since the end of World War II in 1945, it has been politically Division of Korea, divided at or near the 38th parallel north, 3 ...
, with regional variations in production methods, texture, flavor, and usage.


Theories of origin

The most commonly held of the three theories of tofu's origin maintains that tofu was discovered by Liu An (179–122 BC), a
Han dynasty The Han dynasty was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC ...
prince. While plausible, the paucity of reliable sources for this period makes this difficult to conclusively determine. In
Chinese history The history of China spans several millennia across a wide geographical area. Each region now considered part of the Chinese world has experienced periods of unity, fracture, prosperity, and strife. Chinese civilization first emerged in the Y ...
, important inventions were frequently attributed to important leaders and figures of the time. In 1960, a stone mural unearthed from an Eastern Han dynasty tomb provided support for the theory of the Han origin of tofu; however some scholars maintain that tofu during the Han dynasty was rudimentary and lacked the firmness and taste for it to be considered as tofu. Another theory suggests that the production method for tofu was discovered accidentally when a slurry of boiled, ground soybeans was mixed with impure
sea salt Sea salt is salt that is produced by the evaporation of seawater. It is used as a seasoning in foods, cooking, cosmetics and for preserving food. It is also called bay salt, solar salt, or simply salt. Like mined rock salt, production of sea sal ...
. Such sea salt would probably have contained calcium and magnesium salts, allowing the soy mixture to curdle and produce a tofu-like gel. The last group of theories maintains that the ancient Chinese learned the method for curdling soy milk by emulating the milk curdling techniques of the Mongolians. The primary evidence for this theory is the etymological similarity between the Chinese term ''rǔfǔ'' (), which literally means "milk curdled", used during
Sui dynasty The Sui dynasty ( ) was a short-lived Dynasties of China, Chinese imperial dynasty that ruled from 581 to 618. The re-unification of China proper under the Sui brought the Northern and Southern dynasties era to a close, ending a prolonged peri ...
(AD 581–618), for dishes with a consistency like yogurt or soft cheese, later influenced by Mongolian milk products and methods of production, and the term ''dòufu'' (, "beans curdled" ) or tofu. Although intriguing and possible, there is no evidence to substantiate this theory beyond academic speculation.


East Asia


China

A form of tofu may have been discovered during the
Han dynasty The Han dynasty was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC ...
(202 BCAD 220), but it did not become a popular food in China until the
Song dynasty The Song dynasty ( ) was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 960 to 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song, who usurped the throne of the Later Zhou dynasty and went on to conquer the rest of the Fiv ...
(960–1279). In China, tofu was traditionally eaten at the graves of deceased relatives. Ghosts were said to have long since lost their chins and jaws, so only tofu was soft enough for them to eat. Before the advent of refrigeration in China, tofu was usually sold only in the winter because it did not spoil easily in cold weather. In the warmer months, once made, tofu would spoil if left for more than a day.


Japan

Tofu was introduced to
Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...
by Zen Buddhist monks, who initially called it . The earliest Japanese document concerning tofu refers to the dish being served as an offering at the Kasuga Shrine in
Nara The National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) is an independent agency of the United States government within the executive branch, charged with the preservation and documentation of government and historical records. It is also task ...
in 1183. The tofu that was introduced from China is thought to have originally been hard tofu such as island tofu from Okinawa, hard tofu from Hakusan City in Ishikawa Prefecture, Gokayama City in Toyama Prefecture, and Iya region in Tokushima Prefecture. A firm variation of tofu was introduced in
Tosa Province was a province of Japan in the area of southern Shikoku. Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005). "''Tosa''" in . Tosa bordered on Awa to the northeast, and Iyo to the northwest. Its abbreviated form name was . In terms of the Gokishichidō syst ...
, today's Kochi Prefecture, by Mr. Park, the lord of Akizuki Castle and prisoner of war following the
Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) The Imjin War () was a series of two Japanese invasions of Korea: an initial invasion in 1592 also individually called the "Imjin War", a brief truce in 1596, and a second invasion in 1597 called the Chŏngyu War (). The conflict ended in 159 ...
and he was given a town and generous protection, and his family and subordinates ran many hard tofu shops and had a monopoly on them. Gradually, production methods were devised to produce smooth tofu with a pleasant texture, and modern silken tofu was born. The book '' Tofu Hyakuchin'' (), published in 1782 of the
Edo period The , also known as the , is the period between 1600 or 1603 and 1868 in the history of Japan, when the country was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and some 300 regional ''daimyo'', or feudal lords. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengok ...
, lists 100 recipes for cooking tofu.


Southeast Asia

In Southeast Asia, tofu was introduced to the region by Chinese immigrants from Fujian province, as evidenced by many countries in Southeast Asia referring to tofu using the
Min Nan Southern Min (), Minnan ( Mandarin pronunciation: ) or Banlam (), is a group of linguistically similar and historically related Chinese languages that form a branch of Min Chinese spoken in Fujian (especially the Minnan region), most of Taiwan ...
Chinese word for either soft or firm tofu, or "tāu-hū" or "tāu-goan" respectively. In
Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian Ocean, Indian and Pacific Ocean, Pacific oceans. Comprising over List of islands of Indonesia, 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, ...
,
Malaysia Malaysia is a country in Southeast Asia. Featuring the Tanjung Piai, southernmost point of continental Eurasia, it is a federation, federal constitutional monarchy consisting of States and federal territories of Malaysia, 13 states and thre ...
,
Singapore Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, is an island country and city-state in Southeast Asia. The country's territory comprises one main island, 63 satellite islands and islets, and one outlying islet. It is about one degree ...
,
Thailand Thailand, officially the Kingdom of Thailand and historically known as Siam (the official name until 1939), is a country in Southeast Asia on the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese Peninsula. With a population of almost 66 million, it spa ...
,
Cambodia Cambodia, officially the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country in Southeast Asia on the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese Peninsula. It is bordered by Thailand to the northwest, Laos to the north, and Vietnam to the east, and has a coastline ...
,
Myanmar Myanmar, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar; and also referred to as Burma (the official English name until 1989), is a country in northwest Southeast Asia. It is the largest country by area in Mainland Southeast Asia and has ...
, the Philippines and
Vietnam Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV), is a country at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of about and a population of over 100 million, making it the world's List of countries and depende ...
, tofu is widely available and used in many local dishes. Tofu is called ''tahu'' in Indonesia, and Indonesian dishes such as tahu sumbat, taugeh tahu, asinan, siomay and some curries, often add slices of tofu. '' Tahu goreng'', ''tahu isi'' and ''
tahu sumedang Tahu sumedang or Tahu bunkeng (Sumedangite tofu, bunkeng tofu) is a Sundanese cuisine, Sundanese deep-fried tofu from Sumedang, West Java, Indonesia. Characteristic Tahu sumedang characteristics are its content half empty or completely empty. It ...
'' are popular fried tofu snacks. Tofu is called ''tauhu'' in Malaysia and Singapore. Malaysian and Singaporean Indians use tofu in their cuisine, such as in Indian '' mee goreng'', and ''
rojak Rujak ( Indonesian spelling) or rojak ( Malay spelling) is a salad dish of Javanese origin, commonly found in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore. The most popular variant in all three countries is a salad composed of a mixture of sliced fruit ...
'' pasembor.
Peranakan The Peranakan Chinese () are an ethnic group defined by their genealogical descent from the first waves of Southern Chinese settlers to maritime Southeast Asia, known as Nanyang (region), Nanyang (), namely the British Empire, British, Portugu ...
cuisine often uses tofu, as in Penang curry noodles and '' laksa''. Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, and the Philippines are major producers of tofu and have plants in many municipalities. Tofu in the
Philippines The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is an Archipelagic state, archipelagic country in Southeast Asia. Located in the western Pacific Ocean, it consists of List of islands of the Philippines, 7,641 islands, with a tot ...
is widely eaten as the breakfast snack '' tahô'' (soft tofu, from
Philippine Hokkien Philippine Hokkien is a dialect of the Hokkien language of the Southern Min branch of Min Chinese descended directly from Old Chinese of the Sinitic languages, Sinitic family, primarily spoken vernacularly by Chinese Filipinos in the Philippine ...
豆腐 "tāu-hū"), or as ''tokwa'' (dry, firm tofu that is usually fried, from
Philippine Hokkien Philippine Hokkien is a dialect of the Hokkien language of the Southern Min branch of Min Chinese descended directly from Old Chinese of the Sinitic languages, Sinitic family, primarily spoken vernacularly by Chinese Filipinos in the Philippine ...
豆干 "tāu-goan"), which is a staple alternative to meat in main meals and in numerous regional dishes. Tofu was introduced to the archipelago in the 10th to 13th centuries by
Song dynasty The Song dynasty ( ) was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 960 to 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song, who usurped the throne of the Later Zhou dynasty and went on to conquer the rest of the Fiv ...
Chinese mariners and merchants, along with many other foods that became staples of the Philippine diet. The use and production of tofu were first limited to urban centers with influential Chinese minorities, such as
Cebu Cebu ( ; ), officially the Province of Cebu (; ), is a province of the Philippines located in the Central Visayas region, and consists of a main island and 167 surrounding islands and islets. The coastal zone of Cebu is identified as a ...
or Tondo, but quickly spread to even remote native villages and islands.


Elsewhere

Benjamin Franklin Benjamin Franklin (April 17, 1790) was an American polymath: a writer, scientist, inventor, statesman, diplomat, printer, publisher and Political philosophy, political philosopher.#britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Wood, 2021 Among the m ...
was the first American to mention tofu, in a 1770 letter to John Bartram. Franklin, who encountered it during a trip to London, included a few soybeans and referred to it as "cheese" from China. In 1770, Franklin also corresponded with James Flint on the subject of how the Chinese converted callivances (soybeans) into tofu. Flint's writing "Towfu" in his letter is the earliest documented use of "tofu" in the English language. The first tofu company in the United States was established in 1878. In 1908, Li Yuying, a Chinese anarchist and a vegetarian with a French degree in agriculture and biology, opened a soy factory, the Usine de la Caséo-Sojaïne. This was the world's first soy dairy and the first factory in France to manufacture and sell beancurd. However, tofu was not well known to most Westerners before the middle of the 20th century, when it was popularized in the United States by William Shurtleff and Akiko Aoyagi (''The Book of Tofu'', 1975).


Production

Regardless of the product or scale of the production, the production of tofu essentially consists of: # The preparation of soy milk # The coagulation of the soy milk to form curds ( douhua) # The pressing of the soybean curds to form tofu cakes It is similar to the production of dairy
cheese Cheese is a type of dairy product produced in a range of flavors, textures, and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk (usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats or sheep). During prod ...
by coagulating the milk of dairy animals to form curds and pressing and aging the curds to form cheese. Typical tofu-making procedures are cleaning, soaking, grinding beans in water, filtering, boiling, coagulation, and pressing. There are also types, such as Japanese raw silken tofu, in which the curds are not pressed.
Coagulation Coagulation, also known as clotting, is the process by which blood changes from a liquid to a gel, forming a thrombus, blood clot. It results in hemostasis, the cessation of blood loss from a damaged vessel, followed by repair. The process of co ...
of the protein and oil (
emulsion An emulsion is a mixture of two or more liquids that are normally Miscibility, immiscible (unmixable or unblendable) owing to liquid-liquid phase separation. Emulsions are part of a more general class of two-phase systems of matter called colloi ...
) suspended in boiled soy milk is the most important step in the production of tofu. This process is accomplished with the aid of coagulants. Coagulation depends on complex interactions. There are many variables including the variety and percentage of protein in the soybeans used, slurry cooking temperature, coagulation temperature, and other factors. Soybean proteins are mainly composed of 7S and 11S proteins. The negative surface charges on these globulins usually cause them to repel each other. Heating soy milk denatures the proteins and exposes hydrophobic groups normally oriented toward the inside of the globulin structure. Cations from coagulants bind the negatively charged groups. As the net charges of the protein molecules are neutralized, attractive hydrophobic interactions dominate over repulsive electrostatic charges, and protein aggregates are formed. Two types of coagulants (salts and acids) are used commercially.


Salt coagulants

*
Calcium sulfate Calcium sulfate (or calcium sulphate) is an inorganic salt with the chemical formula . It occurs in several hydrated forms; the anhydrous state (known as anhydrite) is a white crystalline solid often found in evaporite deposits. Its dihydrate ...
(
gypsum Gypsum is a soft sulfate mineral composed of calcium sulfate Hydrate, dihydrate, with the chemical formula . It is widely mined and is used as a fertilizer and as the main constituent in many forms of plaster, drywall and blackboard or sidewalk ...
) ( zh, links=no, c=石膏, p=shígāo) – the traditional and most widely used coagulant to produce Chinese-style tofu, it produces a tofu that is tender but slightly brittle in texture. The coagulant itself is tasteless. Also known as gypsum, calcium sulfate is quarried from geological deposits, and no chemical processing or refining is needed, making it the cheapest coagulant used in tofu production. When used in production, the coagulation reaction is slower due to its low solubility, forming a smooth, more gelatinous tofu with relatively high water content and soft texture. Use of this coagulant also makes tofu that is rich in
calcium Calcium is a chemical element; it has symbol Ca and atomic number 20. As an alkaline earth metal, calcium is a reactive metal that forms a dark oxide-nitride layer when exposed to air. Its physical and chemical properties are most similar to it ...
. As such, many tofu manufacturers choose to use this coagulant to be able to market their tofu as a good source of dietary calcium. * Chloride-type nigari salts or lushui (Traditional: 鹵水, 滷水; Simplified: 卤水; Pinyin: lǔshuǐ) –
Magnesium chloride Magnesium chloride is an inorganic compound with the formula . It forms hydrates , where ''n'' can range from 1 to 12. These salts are colorless or white solids that are highly soluble in water. These compounds and their solutions, both of which ...
and
calcium chloride Calcium chloride is an inorganic compound, a Salt (chemistry), salt with the chemical formula . It is a white crystalline solid at room temperature, and it is highly soluble in water. It can be created by neutralising hydrochloric acid with cal ...
: Both of these salts are highly soluble in water and affect soy protein in the same way, whereas
gypsum Gypsum is a soft sulfate mineral composed of calcium sulfate Hydrate, dihydrate, with the chemical formula . It is widely mined and is used as a fertilizer and as the main constituent in many forms of plaster, drywall and blackboard or sidewalk ...
is only very slightly soluble in water and acts differently in soy protein precipitation, the basis of tofu formation. These are the coagulants used to make tofu with a smooth and tender texture. In Japan, a white powder called '' nigari'', which consists primarily of
magnesium chloride Magnesium chloride is an inorganic compound with the formula . It forms hydrates , where ''n'' can range from 1 to 12. These salts are colorless or white solids that are highly soluble in water. These compounds and their solutions, both of which ...
, is produced from
seawater Seawater, or sea water, is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the world's oceans has a salinity of about 3.5% (35 g/L, 35 ppt, 600 mM). This means that every kilogram (roughly one liter by volume) of seawater has approximat ...
after the
sodium chloride Sodium chloride , commonly known as Salt#Edible salt, edible salt, is an ionic compound with the chemical formula NaCl, representing a 1:1 ratio of sodium and chloride ions. It is transparent or translucent, brittle, hygroscopic, and occurs a ...
is removed and the water evaporated. Depending on its production method, ''nigari/Lushui'' may also contain small quantities of
magnesium sulfate Magnesium sulfate or magnesium sulphate is a chemical compound, a salt with the formula , consisting of magnesium cations (20.19% by mass) and sulfate anions . It is a white crystalline solid, soluble in water but not in ethanol. Magnesi ...
(Epsom salt),
potassium chloride Potassium chloride (KCl, or potassium salt) is a metal halide salt composed of potassium and chlorine. It is odorless and has a white or colorless vitreous crystal appearance. The solid dissolves readily in water, and its solutions have a sa ...
, calcium chloride, and trace amounts of other naturally occurring salts. Although the term ''nigari'' is derived from ''nigai'', the Japanese word for "bitter", neither ''nigari'' nor pure magnesium chloride imparts a perceivable taste to the finished tofu. Calcium chloride is not found in seawater in significant quantities and therefore is not regarded as ''nigari''. It is used extensively in the United States due to its flavor and low cost. Fresh clean seawater itself can also be used as a coagulant.


Acid coagulants

* Glucono delta-lactone (GDL): A naturally occurring organic acid also used in
cheesemaking Cheesemaking (or caseiculture) is the craft of making cheese. The production of cheese, like many other food preservation processes, allows the nutritional and economic value of a food material, in this case milk, to be preserved in concentrate ...
, this coagulant produces a very fine textured tofu that is almost jelly-like. It is used especially for "silken" and softer tofus and confers a faint sour taste to the finished product. GDL is derived from glucose and takes the form of a white powder at room temperature. Its molecular structure contains a six-membered
heterocyclic A heterocyclic compound or ring structure is a cyclic compound that has atoms of at least two different elements as members of its ring(s). Heterocyclic organic chemistry is the branch of organic chemistry dealing with the synthesis, proper ...
ring that is hydrolyzed upon contact with water, slowly converting GDL to gluconic acid. When added to soy milk, it gradually lowers the pH and causes proteins to coagulate evenly throughout the mixture, forming a single, smooth gel that is free of air gaps and that resists breaking during transportation. Using GDL as a coagulant, silken tofu can be formed directly in its container, as it does not require pressing. This acid coagulant is also commonly used together with calcium sulfate to give soft tofu a smooth, tender texture. * Other edible acids: Though they can affect the taste of the tofu more, and vary in density and texture, acids such as
acetic acid Acetic acid , systematically named ethanoic acid , is an acidic, colourless liquid and organic compound with the chemical formula (also written as , , or ). Vinegar is at least 4% acetic acid by volume, making acetic acid the main compone ...
(
vinegar Vinegar () is an aqueous solution of diluted acetic acid and trace compounds that may include flavorings. Vinegar typically contains from 5% to 18% acetic acid by volume. Usually, the acetic acid is produced by a double fermentation, converting ...
) and
citric acid Citric acid is an organic compound with the formula . It is a Transparency and translucency, colorless Weak acid, weak organic acid. It occurs naturally in Citrus, citrus fruits. In biochemistry, it is an intermediate in the citric acid cycle, ...
(such as lemon juice), can also be used to coagulate soy milk and produce tofu.


Enzyme coagulants

* Among
enzymes An enzyme () is a protein that acts as a biological catalyst by accelerating chemical reactions. The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrates, and the enzyme converts the substrates into different molecules known as pro ...
that have been shown to produce tofu are
papain Papain, also known as papaya proteinase I, is a cysteine protease () enzyme present in papaya (''Carica papaya'') and mountain papaya (''Vasconcellea cundinamarcensis''). It is the namesake member of the papain-like protease family. It has wi ...
, and alkaline and neutral
protease A protease (also called a peptidase, proteinase, or proteolytic enzyme) is an enzyme that catalysis, catalyzes proteolysis, breaking down proteins into smaller polypeptides or single amino acids, and spurring the formation of new protein products ...
s from microorganisms. Papain, moreover, has been studied as a gelling agent to produce "instant tofu" from soy protein isolate and soy glycinin (11S) protein. Contemporary tofu manufacturers may choose to use one or more of these coagulants since each plays a role in producing the desired texture in the finished tofu. Different textures result from different pore sizes and other microscopic features in the tofu produced using each coagulant. The coagulant mixture is dissolved in water, and the solution is then stirred into boiled soy milk until the mixture curdles into a soft gel. Coagulants are typically added at concentrations between 1.5 and 5.0 g/kg. In all coagulants consisting of calcium or magnesium salts, the positive double-bonded ions of the calcium or magnesium are responsible for the coagulation of the soy proteins which become part of the tofu, thereby enhancing its nutritional value. Only 1 part per 1000 of the tofu eaten is coagulant; most of the coagulant reacts with soy protein and is broken down into ions. The non-reactive portion dissolves in the soy whey and is discarded. The curds are processed differently depending on the form of tofu that is being manufactured. For soft silken tofu (; ''nèndòufu'' in Chinese or ''kinugoshi-dōfu'' in Japanese) or tofu pudding (, ''dòuhuā'' or 豆腐花, ''dòufuhuā'' in Chinese, or ''Oboro-dōfu'' in Japanese) the soy milk is curdled directly in the tofu's final packaging. For standard firm East Asian tofu, the soy curd is cut and strained of excess liquid using cheesecloth or muslin and then lightly pressed to produce a soft cake. Firmer tofus, such as East Asian dry tofu ( in Chinese or ''Shimi-dōfu'' in Japanese) or Western types of tofu, are further pressed to remove even more liquid. In Vietnam, the curd is strained and molded in a square mold, and the end product is called ''đậu khuôn'' (molded bean) or ''đậu phụ'' (one of the Vietnamese ways to pronounce the Chinese ''dòufu''). The tofu curds are allowed to cool and become firm. The finished tofu can then be cut into pieces, flavored or further processed. Although tartness is sometimes desired in dessert tofu, the acid used in flavoring is usually not the primary coagulant, since concentrations sufficiently high to induce coagulation negatively affect the flavor or texture of the resulting tofu. A sour taste in tofu and a slight cloudiness in its storing liquid is also usually an indication of bacterial growth and, hence, spoilage.


Colour

The whiteness of tofu is ultimately determined by the soybean variety, soybean protein composition, and degree of aggregation of the tofu gel network. The yellowish-beige color of soybeans is due to the color compounds including anthocyanin, isoflavones, and polyphenol compounds; therefore the soybean variety used will predicate the color of the final tofu product. Ways to reduce the yellow color include reducing isoflavone content by changing the pH of the soy milk solution used in the production of the tofu so that the relevant compounds precipitate out and are removed during the extraction of okara. The opacity of tofu gel and the off-white color typical of standard uncooked firm tofu is due to the scattering of light by the colloidal particles of the tofu. The addition of higher levels of calcium salts or a high protein content will contribute to forming a denser and more aggregated gel network which disperses more light, resulting in tofu with a whiter appearance.


Flavor

Tofu flavor is generally described as bland, which is the taste desired by customers in North America. A more beany flavor is preferred in East Asia. The beany or bland taste is generated during the grinding and cooking process, and either a "hot grind" or a "cold grind" can be used to influence the taste. The hot grind method reduces the beany flavor by inactivating the
lipoxygenase Lipoxygenases () (LOX) are a family of (non- heme) iron-containing enzymes, more specifically oxidative enzymes, most of which catalyze the dioxygenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids in lipids containing a cis,cis-1,4- pentadiene into ce ...
enzyme in the soy protein that is known to generate off flavors. Eliminating these flavors makes tofu that is "bland". If a cold grind is used lipoxygenase remains and produces the aldehyde, alcohol, and ester volatile compounds that create beany notes.


Varieties

A wide variety of types and flavors of tofu is available in both Western and Eastern markets. Despite the range of options, tofu products can be split into two main categories: 'fresh tofu', which is produced directly from soy milk, and 'processed tofu', which is produced from fresh tofu. Tofu production also creates important by-products that are used in various cuisines.


Unpressed fresh

Unpressed fresh tofu is gelled soy milk with curd that has not been cut and pressed of its liquid. Depending on whether the soy milk is gelled with bittern (
magnesium chloride Magnesium chloride is an inorganic compound with the formula . It forms hydrates , where ''n'' can range from 1 to 12. These salts are colorless or white solids that are highly soluble in water. These compounds and their solutions, both of which ...
) solution or a suspension of gypsum (
calcium sulphate Calcium sulfate (or calcium sulphate) is an Inorganic compound, inorganic Salt (chemistry), salt with the chemical formula . It occurs in several Hydrate, hydrated forms; the anhydrous state (known as anhydrite) is a white crystalline solid often ...
), different types of unpressed tofu are produced. Gypsum-gelled soft tofu has a smooth and gel-like texture and is commonly known as soft tofu, silken-tofu, or douhua (). The bittern-gelled variety has a very soft spongy curdled texture and is known as extra-soft or ''sun-dubu'' (). Unpressed tofu is so soft that it is directly ladled out for serving or sold with its gelling container.


Extra soft

Unpressed bittern-gelled soft tofu is called ''sun-dubu'' (; "mild tofu") in Korean. Soy milk is mixed with
seawater Seawater, or sea water, is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the world's oceans has a salinity of about 3.5% (35 g/L, 35 ppt, 600 mM). This means that every kilogram (roughly one liter by volume) of seawater has approximat ...
, or
saline water Saline water (more commonly known as salt water) is water that contains a high concentration of dissolved salts (mainly sodium chloride). On the United States Geological Survey (USGS) salinity scale, saline water is saltier than brackish wat ...
made with
sea salt Sea salt is salt that is produced by the evaporation of seawater. It is used as a seasoning in foods, cooking, cosmetics and for preserving food. It is also called bay salt, solar salt, or simply salt. Like mined rock salt, production of sea sal ...
, so that it curdles.Donghae Sundubu
, ''visitkorea''. Accessed on May 1st, 2010.
The curds remain loose and soft. Freshly made ''sun-dubu'' is eaten boiled with little or no seasoning. Manufactured ''sundubu'' is usually sold in tubes. It is also the main ingredient in '' sundubu-jjigae'' (; "soft tofu stew"). Although the word ''sun'' in ''sun-dubu'' does not have a Sino-Korean origin, ''sun-dubu'' is often translated into Chinese and Japanese using the Chinese character , whose Korean pronunciation is ''sun'' and the meaning is "pure". Thus in China, ''sun-dubu'' is called ''chún dòufu'' (; "pure tofu"), and in Japan, it is called ''jun-tōfu'' () or ''sundubu'' ().


Soft

Soft tofu, also known as "silken tofu", is called ''nèndòufu'' (; "soft tofu") or ''huádòufu'' (, "smooth tofu") in Chinese; ''kinugoshi-dōfu'' (; "silk-filtered tofu") in Japanese; and ''yeon-dubu'' (; "soft tofu") in Korean. Gelled with gypsum, this tofu is undrained, and unpressed, and contains a high moisture content. Silken tofu is produced by coagulating
soy milk Soy milk (or soymilk), also known as soya milk, is a plant-based milk produced by soaking and grinding soybeans, boiling the mixture, and filtering out remaining particulates. It is a stable emulsion of oil, water, and protein. Its original ...
without cutting the curd. Silken tofu is available in several consistencies, including soft and firm, but all silken tofu is more delicate than regular firm tofu (pressed tofu) and it has different culinary uses. Silken tofu can be used as a substitute for dairy products and eggs, especially for smoothies and baked desserts. '' Douhua'' (, also known as , ''dòufuhuā'' in Chinese), or ''tofu brain'' ( or , ''dòufunǎo'' in Chinese) or ''dau fa'' (Cantonese) and ''tau hua'' (Fujianese) (; "bean flower") is similar to silken tofu, but is typically served a few hours after it is prepared. It is most often eaten as a hot dessert, but sometimes salty pickles or hot sauce are added. This is a type of soft tofu with very high moisture content. Because using chopsticks make ''douhua'' difficult to pick up, it is generally eaten with a spoon. With the addition of flavorings such as finely chopped spring onions, dried
shrimp A shrimp (: shrimp (American English, US) or shrimps (British English, UK)) is a crustacean with an elongated body and a primarily Aquatic locomotion, swimming mode of locomotion – typically Decapods belonging to the Caridea or Dendrobranchi ...
,
soy sauce Soy sauce (sometimes called soya sauce in British English) is a liquid condiment of China, Chinese origin, traditionally made from a fermentation (food), fermented paste of soybeans, roasted cereal, grain, brine, and ''Aspergillus oryzae'' or ''A ...
, or
chilli sauce Chili sauce and chili paste are condiments prepared with chili peppers. Chili sauce may be Scoville scale, hot, Sweetness, sweet or a combination thereof, and may differ from hot sauce in that many sweet or mild varieties exist, which is typic ...
, ''douhua'' is a popular breakfast dish across China. In Malaysia, ''douhua'' is usually served warm with white or dark palm sugar syrup, or served cold with longans. It is frequently served at breakfast or for dessert. It is usually served either with a sweet ginger syrup, or a mushroom gravy called ''da lu'' (). It's normally coagulated at the restaurant into a serving container. Douhua is not always considered a type of tofu, but rather a type of food in its own right. Some variation exists among soft tofus. Black douhua (, hēidòuhuā) is a type of silken tofu made from black soybeans, which is usually made into ''dòuhuā'' () rather than firm or dry tofu. The texture of black bean tofu is slightly more gelatinous than regular ''douhua'' and the color is greyish in tone. This type of tofu is eaten for its earthy "black bean taste". ''Edamame tofu'' is a Japanese variety of ''kinugoshi tōfu'' made from ''edamame'' (fresh green soybeans); it is pale green in color and often studded with whole ''edamame''.


Pressed fresh

Depending on the amount of water that is extracted from the cut and pressed curds two types of tofu are produced: firm, and extra firm. Fresh tofu is usually sold completely immersed in water to maintain its moisture content and freshness, and to suppress bacterial growth.


Firm

Firm tofu (called ''lǎodòufu'' in Chinese; , ''momen-dōfu'' in Japanese, "cotton tofu"; , ''mo-dubu'' in Korean): Although drained and pressed, this form of fresh tofu retains a high moisture content. It has the firmness of raw meat and bounces back readily when pressed. The texture of the inside of the tofu is similar to that of a firm custard. The skin of this form of tofu retains the pattern of the muslin used to drain it, and the outside is slightly more resistant to damage than the inside. It can be picked up easily with chopsticks. A very firm type of ''momen-dōfu'' is eaten in parts of Japan, called ''ishi-dōfu'' (石豆腐, "stone tofu") in parts of Ishikawa, or ''iwa-dōfu'' (岩豆腐, "rock tofu") in Gokayama in the
Toyama Prefecture is a prefecture of Japan located in the Chūbu region of Honshu. Toyama Prefecture has a population of 993,848 (1 January 2025) and has a geographic area of 4,247.61 km2 (1,640.01 sq mi). Toyama Prefecture borders Ishikawa Prefecture to the ...
and in Iya in the prefecture of
Tokushima is a Prefectures of Japan, prefecture of Japan located on the island of Shikoku. Tokushima Prefecture has a population of 682,439 (1 February 2025) and has a geographic area of 4,146 Square kilometre, km2 (1,601 sq mi). Tokushima Prefecture b ...
. These types of firm tofu are produced with seawater instead of '' nigari'' (
magnesium chloride Magnesium chloride is an inorganic compound with the formula . It forms hydrates , where ''n'' can range from 1 to 12. These salts are colorless or white solids that are highly soluble in water. These compounds and their solutions, both of which ...
), or using concentrated
soy milk Soy milk (or soymilk), also known as soya milk, is a plant-based milk produced by soaking and grinding soybeans, boiling the mixture, and filtering out remaining particulates. It is a stable emulsion of oil, water, and protein. Its original ...
. Some of them are squeezed using heavy weights to eliminate excess moisture. These products are produced in areas where traveling is inconvenient, such as remote islands, mountain villages, and heavy snowfall areas.


Extra-firm

''Dòugān'' (, literally "dry tofu" in Chinese) is an extra firm variety of tofu where a large proportion of the liquid has been pressed out. ''Dòugān'' contains the least moisture of all fresh tofu, the firmness of fully cooked meat, and a somewhat rubbery feel similar to that of paneer. It is not easily crumbled except when it's sliced thinly. Some varieties of ''dougan'' has the pattern of the muslin used to drain and press it. One way to cook ''dougan'' is to cut it into thin slices called shredded dried tofu (, ''dòugānsī'' in Chinese, or simply , ''gānsī''). The strings look like loose cooked
noodle Noodles are a type of food made from unleavened dough which is either rolled flat and cut, stretched, or extruded, into long strips or strings. Noodles are a staple food in many cultures and made into a variety of shapes. The most common noo ...
s and can be served cold, stir-fried, or added to soup, as with Japanese '' aburaage''. ''Baiye'', ''qianzhang'', or ''gandoufu'' () is a very flat (about 2 mm thick) type of extra-firm tofu. It cannot be crumbled. The surface is filled with bulges arranged in a square grid from the muslin used to press it. It can be cut into long strings with a cross-section smaller than 2 mm × 2 mm and eaten in a way similar to ''gansi''. It is also used to make: * ''Su ji'' (, "vegetarian chicken"), either by being rolled up or by being pressed together and fried. * ''Baiye jie'' ( "''baiye'' knots"), by slicing into 2 cm × 10 cm slices and tying the slice up. * Various dishes that roll other food items inside a piece of ''baiye''.


Processed tofu

Many forms of processed tofu exist. Some processing techniques probably originate before the days of refrigeration from the need to preserve tofu or to increase its shelf life. Other production techniques are employed to create tofus with different textures and flavors.


Fermented

* Pickled tofu ( in Chinese,
pinyin Hanyu Pinyin, or simply pinyin, officially the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet, is the most common romanization system for Standard Chinese. ''Hanyu'' () literally means 'Han Chinese, Han language'—that is, the Chinese language—while ''pinyin' ...
: ''dòufurǔ'', or fŭrŭ; ''chao'' in Vietnamese), also called "preserved tofu" or "fermented tofu", consists of cubes of dried tofu that have been allowed to fully air-dry under hay and slowly ferment with the help of aerial bacteria. The dry fermented tofu is then soaked in salt water, Chinese
rice wine Rice wine is an alcoholic beverage fermentation, fermented from rice, traditionally consumed in East Asia, Southeast Asia and South Asia, where rice is a quintessential staple crop. Rice wine is made by the fermentation of rice starch, during wh ...
, vinegar or minced chiles, or in a mixture of whole rice, bean paste, and soybeans. In the case of red pickled tofu ( in Chinese, Pinyin: ''hóng dòufurǔ''), red yeast rice (cultivated with '' Monascus purpureus'') is added for color. In Japan, pickled tofu with miso paste is called ''tofu no misodzuke'', and is a traditional preserved food in
Kumamoto is the capital Cities of Japan, city of Kumamoto Prefecture on the island of Kyushu, Japan. , the city has an estimated population of 738,907 and a population density of 1,893 people per km2. The total area is 390.32 km2. had a populat ...
. In Okinawa, pickled and fermented tofu is called ''tofuyo'' (豆腐餻). It is made from ''Shima-doufu'' (an Okinawan variety of large and firm tofu). It is fermented and matured with koji mold, red koji mold, and awamori. * Stinky tofu ( in Chinese, Pinyin: ''chòudòufu'') is soft tofu that has been fermented in a vegetable and fish brine. The blocks of tofu have a pungent cheese smell, sometimes resembling rotting food. Despite its strong odor, the flavor and texture of stinky tofu is appreciated by aficionados, who describe it as delightful. The texture of this tofu is similar to the soft East Asian tofu from which it is made. The rind that stinky tofu develops when fried is said to be best when especially crisp, and fried stinky tofu is usually served with
soy sauce Soy sauce (sometimes called soya sauce in British English) is a liquid condiment of China, Chinese origin, traditionally made from a fermentation (food), fermented paste of soybeans, roasted cereal, grain, brine, and ''Aspergillus oryzae'' or ''A ...
, sweet sauce, or hot sauce.


Frozen

; Frozen tofu (凍豆腐 ''dòngdòufu'', 冰豆腐 ''bīngdòufu'' in Chinese, both meaning "frozen tofu") : A frozen tofu. The ice crystals that develop within it result in the formation of large cavities that appear to be layered. Frozen tofu takes on a yellowish hue in the freezing process. Frozen tofu originates in the Jiangnan region of China and is commonly made at home from soft tofu. It is also commercially sold as a specialty in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and other areas with Jiangnan emigrants. It is regularly paired with '' tatsoi'' as a winter dish. Frozen tofu is defrosted before serving and sometimes pressed to remove moisture prior to use. : During freezing, the ice crystals puncture cell walls and facilitate the release of free and bound water and cause a decrease in total water content in tofu after freezing then thawing. The initial protein-water bonds are irreversibly replaced by protein-protein bonds, which are more elastic and cause a structural change to the gel network and lead to an increase in textural properties such as hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, and gumminess. In Japan, two kinds of freeze-dried tofu are produced. Those are usually rehydrated by being soaked in water prior to consumption. In their
dehydrated In physiology, dehydration is a lack of total body water that disrupts Metabolism, metabolic processes. It occurs when free water loss exceeds intake, often resulting from excessive sweating, health conditions, or inadequate consumption of wate ...
state, they do not require refrigeration. * Koya-dofu (kōya-dōfu, 高野豆腐 in Japanese) is a freeze-dried type also known as kori tofu (凍り豆腐, literally "frozen tofu"). Originally from Mount Kōya, a center of
Japanese Buddhism Buddhism was first established in Japan in the 6th century CE. Most of the Japanese Buddhists belong to new schools of Buddhism which were established in the Kamakura period (1185-1333). During the Edo period (1603–1868), Buddhism was cont ...
famed for its '' shōjin ryōri'', or traditional Buddhist vegetarian cuisine. It is said that the method of Koya-dofu was discovered by accident by leaving tofu outdoors in the winter season. It is sold in freeze-dried blocks or cubes in Japanese markets. It is typically simmered in ''
dashi is a family of stocks used in Japanese cuisine. ''Dashi'' forms the base for miso soup, clear broth soup, noodle broth soup, and many simmering liquids to accentuate the savory flavor known as umami. ''Dashi'' is also mixed into the flour b ...
'', ''
sake Sake, , or saki, also referred to as Japanese rice wine, is an alcoholic beverage of Japanese origin made by fermenting rice that has been polished to remove the bran. Despite the name ''Japanese rice wine'', sake, and indeed any East Asi ...
'' or ''
mirin is a type of rice wine and a common ingredient in Japanese cuisine, Japanese cooking. It is similar to sake but with a lower alcohol (drug), alcohol content and higher sugar content. The sugar content is a complex carbohydrate that forms natur ...
'' and
soy sauce Soy sauce (sometimes called soya sauce in British English) is a liquid condiment of China, Chinese origin, traditionally made from a fermentation (food), fermented paste of soybeans, roasted cereal, grain, brine, and ''Aspergillus oryzae'' or ''A ...
. In ''shōjin ryōri'', vegetarian ''kombu dashi'', made from seaweed, is used. When prepared in the usual manner, it has a spongy texture and a mildly sweet or savory flavor. The taste and flavor depend on what soup or cooking stock it was simmered in. A similar form of freeze-dried tofu, in smaller pieces, is found in instant soups (such as
miso soup is a traditional Japan, Japanese soup consisting of miso paste mixed with a ''dashi'' Stock (food), stock. It is commonly served as part of an meal, meaning "one soup, three dishes," a traditional Japanese meal structure that includes rice, sou ...
), in which the toppings are freeze-dried and stored in sealed pouches. * Shimidofu (凍み豆腐) is mainly consumed in the Tohoku region. While Koya-dofu is made by shade-drying, shimidofu is made by sun-drying.


By-products


Tofu skin

Tofu skin Tofu skin, yuba, beancurd skin, beancurd sheet, or beancurd robes is a food item made from soybeans. During the boiling of soy milk, in an open shallow pan, a film or skin composed primarily of a soy protein-lipid complex forms on the liquid surf ...
is produced when soy milk is boiled in an open, shallow pan, thus producing a film or skin composed primarily of a soy protein-lipid complex on the liquid surface. The films are collected and dried into yellowish sheets known as "soy milk skin" (, ''fǔpí'' in Chinese; , ''yuba'' in Japanese). Its approximate composition is 50–55% protein, 24–26% lipids (fat), 12% carbohydrate, 3% ash, and 9% moisture. The skin can also be dried into a product known as "tofu bamboo" (, ''fǔzhú'' in Chinese; ''phù trúc'' in Vietnamese; ''kusatake'', Japanese), or into many other shapes. Since tofu skin has a soft yet rubbery texture, it can be folded or shaped into different forms and cooked further to imitate meat in vegan cuisine. Some factories dedicate their production to tofu skin and other soy membrane products. Tofu skin is commonly sold in the form of dried leaves or sheets. Other people would put the "tofu bamboo" into congee (a watery rice mixture that is eaten for breakfast) so that the congee becomes more silky and smooth, and gives a whole new texture. Also, soft, fragile skin would be on the congee once it cools down.Tofu skin is cooked with noodles.


Soy pulp

Okara, from the Japanese is known as ''xuěhuācài'', in Chinese, lit. "snowflake vegetable"; , ''dòufuzhā'', also Chinese, lit. "tofu sediment/residue"; and , ''kongbiji'', in Korean). Sometimes known in the west as "soy pulp" or "tofu lees", ''okara'' is a tofu by-product consisting of the fiber, protein, and starch left over when soy milk has been extracted from ground soaked soybeans. It is often used as animal feed in most tofu-producing cultures, but also has other uses in Japanese and Korean cuisines, such as in the Korean stew ''kongbiji jjigae'' (). It is also an ingredient for vegetarian burgers in many Western nations. In
Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...
, it is used to make
ice cream Ice cream is a frozen dessert typically made from milk or cream that has been flavoured with a sweetener, either sugar or an alternative, and a spice, such as Chocolate, cocoa or vanilla, or with fruit, such as strawberries or peaches. Food ...
.


Tofu-like foods

The term ''tofu'' is used by extension for similarly textured curdled dishes that do not use soy products, such as "almond tofu" ( almond jelly), (egg), (sesame), or peanut tofu (Chinese ''luòhuāshēng dòufu'' and Okinawan ). Due to their East Asian origins and their textures, many food items are called "tofu", even though their production processes are not technically similar. For instance, many sweet almond tofus are actually gelatinous desserts hardened using
agar Agar ( or ), or agar-agar, is a jelly-like substance consisting of polysaccharides obtained from the cell walls of some species of red algae, primarily from " ogonori" and " tengusa". As found in nature, agar is a mixture of two components, t ...
or
gelatin Gelatin or gelatine () is a translucent, colorless, flavorless food ingredient, commonly derived from collagen taken from animal body parts. It is brittle when dry and rubbery when moist. It may also be referred to as hydrolyzed collagen, coll ...
. Some foods, such as Burmese tofu, are not coagulated from the "milk" of the legume but rather set in a manner similar to soft
polenta Polenta (, ) is an Italian cuisine, Italian dish of boiled cornmeal that was historically made from other grains. It may be allowed to cool and solidify into a loaf that can be baked, fried or Grilling, grilled. The variety of cereal used is ...
, Korean muk, or the
jidou liangfen ''Liangfen'' ( zh, s=凉粉, t=涼粉, hp=liángfěn, l=cool rice noodles), also spelled ''liang fen'', is a Chinese cuisine, Chinese legume dish consisting of starch jelly that is usually served cold, with a savory sauce, often in the summer.Wil ...
of
Yunnan Yunnan; is an inland Provinces of China, province in Southwestern China. The province spans approximately and has a population of 47.2 million (as of 2020). The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders the Chinese provinces ...
province of
southwest China Southwestern China () is a region in the People's Republic of China. It consists of five provincial administrative regions, namely Chongqing, Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan, and Xizang. Geography Southwestern China is a rugged and mountainous region, ...
.


Almond tofu

" Almond tofu" ( zh, links=no, c=杏仁豆腐 ''xìngrén dòufu''; Japanese: ''annindōfu'') is a milky white and gelatinous substance resembling tofu, but it does not use soy products or soy milk and is hardened with
agar Agar ( or ), or agar-agar, is a jelly-like substance consisting of polysaccharides obtained from the cell walls of some species of red algae, primarily from " ogonori" and " tengusa". As found in nature, agar is a mixture of two components, t ...
. A similar dessert made with
coconut milk Coconut milk is a plant milk extracted from the grated pulp of mature coconuts. The opacity and rich taste of the milky-white liquid are due to its high oil content, most of which is saturated fat. Coconut milk is a traditional food ingred ...
or
mango A mango is an edible stone fruit produced by the tropical tree '' Mangifera indica''. It originated from the region between northwestern Myanmar, Bangladesh, and northeastern India. ''M. indica'' has been cultivated in South and Southeast As ...
juices may occasionally be referred to as "coconut tofu" or "mango tofu", although such names are also given to hot dishes that use soy tofu and coconut or mango in the recipe.


Chickpea tofu

Burmese tofu (''to hpu'' in Burmese) is a legume product made from '' besan'' ( ''chana dal'') flour; the Shan variety uses yellow split pea flour instead. Both types are yellow in color and generally found only in
Myanmar Myanmar, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar; and also referred to as Burma (the official English name until 1989), is a country in northwest Southeast Asia. It is the largest country by area in Mainland Southeast Asia and has ...
, and Yunnan province of China, though the Burman variety is also available in some overseas restaurants serving
Burmese cuisine Burmese cuisine encompasses the diverse regional culinary traditions of Myanmar, which have developed through longstanding agricultural practices, centuries of sociopolitical and economic change, and cross-cultural contact and trade with neighb ...
. The term is believed to be derived from Dou Fen (bean Jelly) from Chinese and it was adopted to Burmese cuisine through Shan people ( Dai people of Yunnan) . Burmese tofu may be fried as fritters cut into rectangular or triangular shapes. A variety called ''hsan to hpu'' (or ''hsan ta hpo'' in Shan regions) is made from rice flour (called ''hsan hmont'' or ''mont hmont'') and is white in color with the same consistency as yellow Burmese tofu when set. It is eaten as a salad in the same manner as yellow tofu.


Egg tofu

(Japanese: , , tamagodōfu) ( zh, links=no, c=蛋豆腐, dàndòufu; often called , Rìbĕn dòufu, lit. "Japan bean curd") is the main type of savory flavored tofu. Whole beaten eggs are combined with
dashi is a family of stocks used in Japanese cuisine. ''Dashi'' forms the base for miso soup, clear broth soup, noodle broth soup, and many simmering liquids to accentuate the savory flavor known as umami. ''Dashi'' is also mixed into the flour b ...
, poured into molds, and cooked in a steamer (cf. '' chawanmushi''). This tofu has a pale golden color that can be attributed to the addition of eggs and, occasionally, food coloring. This tofu has a fuller texture and flavor than silken tofu, due to the presence of egg fat and proteins. Plain "dried tofu" can be flavored by stewing in soy sauce () to make soy-sauce tofu. It is common to see tofu sold from hot food stalls in this soy-sauce stewed form. Today Egg "Japanese" tofu is made of eggs, water, vegetable protein, and seasoning. Egg tofu was invented in Japan during the Edo period. The book《万宝料理秘密箱》written in 1785 recorded how to make Japanese tofu. Later the Japanese form of tofu entered Southeast Asia, being introduced to China in 1995 from Malaysia. 100 grams of Egg tofu has 17 mg calcium, 24 mg magnesium, and 5 grams protein while 100 grams tofu has 138 mg calcium, 63 mg magnesium and 12.2 grams protein. Compared with tofu, Japanese tofu's nutritional value is lower. Tofu dishes common in Japan include three delicacies () Japanese tofu; shrimp Japanese tofu; Japanese tofu in ketchup; ''teppanyaki'' Japanese tofu; and Japanese fish-flavored tofu.


Peanut tofu

In Okinawa, Japan, a peanut milk, made by crushing raw peanuts, adding water and straining, is combined with starch (usually
sweet potato The sweet potato or sweetpotato (''Ipomoea batatas'') is a dicotyledonous plant in the morning glory family, Convolvulaceae. Its sizeable, starchy, sweet-tasting tuberous roots are used as a root vegetable, which is a staple food in parts of ...
, known locally as ''umukuji'' or ) and heated until curdling occurs. The Chinese equivalent is ''luòhuāshēng dòufu''.


Sesame tofu

The tofu known as is made by grinding
sesame Sesame (; ''Sesamum indicum'') is a plant in the genus '' Sesamum'', also called benne. Numerous wild relatives occur in Africa and a smaller number in India. It is widely naturalized in tropical regions around the world and is cultivated for ...
into a smooth paste, combining it with liquid and
kudzu Kudzu (), also called Japanese arrowroot or Chinese arrowroot, is a group of climbing, coiling, and trailing deciduous perennial vines native to much of East Asia, Southeast Asia, and some Pacific islands. It is invasive species, invasive in ...
starch, and heating it until curdling occurs. It is often served chilled as '' hiyayakko''.


Thousand-layer tofu

Thousand-layer tofu ( zh, t=千葉豆腐, s=千叶豆腐, p=qiānyè dòufu, l=thousand-layer tofu) is not a true tofu made by coagulation of soymilk, but a modern invention made from soy protein isolate and a source of starch. It has a smooth, bouncy texture somewhat comparable to
kamaboko is a type of Curing (chemistry), cured , a processed seafood product common in Japanese cuisine. It was initially made in the year 1115. Production and uses is made by forming various Purée, pureed deboned whitefish (fisheries term), whit ...
. Originally a Taiwanese invention called hundred-layer tofu (百葉豆腐), it was renamed in China to avoid confusion with the existing type of extra-firm tofu called ''baiye''.


Preparation

Tofu has very little flavor or smell of its own. Consequently, tofu can be used in both savory and sweet dishes, acting as a bland background for presenting the flavors of the other ingredients used. In order to flavor the tofu it is often marinated in soy sauce, chillis, sesame oil, etc. In East Asian cooking, tofu is prepared in many ways, including raw, stewed, stir-fried, in soup, cooked in sauce, or stuffed with fillings. The idea of using tofu as a meat substitute is not common in East Asia.


East Asia


China

Many Chinese tofu dishes such as ''jiācháng dòufu'' (家常豆腐) and '' mápó dòufu'' (麻婆豆腐) may include meat. In
Chinese cuisine Chinese cuisine comprises cuisines originating from Greater China, China, as well as from Overseas Chinese, Chinese people from other parts of the world. Because of the Chinese diaspora and the historical power of the country, Chinese cuisine ...
, '' Dòuhuā'' () is served with toppings such as boiled
peanut The peanut (''Arachis hypogaea''), also known as the groundnut, goober (US), goober pea, pindar (US) or monkey nut (UK), is a legume crop grown mainly for its edible seeds. It is widely grown in the tropics and subtropics by small and large ...
s, azuki beans, cooked
oatmeal Oatmeal is a preparation of oats that have been dehusked, steamed, and flattened, or a coarse flour of hulled oat grains ( groats) that have either been milled (ground), rolled, or steel-cut. Ground oats are also called white oats. Steel- ...
,
tapioca Tapioca (; ) is a starch extracted from the tubers of the cassava plant (''Manihot esculenta,'' also known as manioc), a species native to the North Region, Brazil, North and Northeast Region, Brazil, Northeast regions of Brazil, but which has ...
,
mung bean The mung bean or green gram (''Vigna radiata'') is a plant species in the legume family.Brief Introduction of Mung Bean. Vigna Radiata Extract Green Mung Bean Extract Powder Phaseolus aureus Roxb Vigna radiata L R Wilczek. MDidea-Extracts P ...
s, or a syrup flavored with
ginger Ginger (''Zingiber officinale'') is a flowering plant whose rhizome, ginger root or ginger, is widely used as a spice and a folk medicine. It is an herbaceous perennial that grows annual pseudostems (false stems made of the rolled bases of l ...
or
almond The almond (''Prunus amygdalus'', Synonym (taxonomy)#Botany, syn. ''Prunus dulcis'') is a species of tree from the genus ''Prunus''. Along with the peach, it is classified in the subgenus ''Amygdalus'', distinguished from the other subgenera ...
. During the summer, "dòuhuā" is served with crushed ice; in the winter, it is served warm. In many parts of
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
, fresh tofu is eaten with soy sauce or further flavored with '' katsuobushi'' shavings, century eggs ( pídàn), and sesame seed oil. With the exception of the softest tofus, all forms of tofu can be fried. Thin and soft varieties of tofu are deep fried in oil until they are light and airy in their core 豆泡 ''dòupào'', 豆腐泡 ''dòufupào'', 油豆腐 ''yóudòufu'', or 豆卜 ''dòubǔ'' in Chinese, literally "bean bubble", describing the shape of the fried tofu as a bubble. Depending on the type of tofu used, the texture of deep-fried tofu may range from crispy on the outside and custardy on the inside, to puff up like a plain doughnut. The former is usually eaten plain in Chinese cuisine with garlic soy sauce, while the latter is either stuffed with fish paste to make '' Yong Tau Foo'' or cooked in soups. In
Taiwan Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia. The main geography of Taiwan, island of Taiwan, also known as ''Formosa'', lies between the East China Sea, East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocea ...
, fried tofu is made into a dish called " A-gei", which consists of a fried aburage tofu package stuffed with noodles and capped with
surimi is a paste made from Fish as food, fish or other meat. It can also be any of a number of East Asian cuisine, East Asian foods that use that paste as their primary ingredient. It is available in many shapes, forms, and textures, and is often ...
. Tofus such as firm East Asian and ''dòugān'' (Chinese dry tofu), with their lower moisture content, are cut into bite-sized cubes or triangles and deep fried until they develop a golden-brown, crispy surface ( 豆腐 in Chinese, ''zhádòufu'', lit. "fried tofu"). These may be eaten on their own or with a light sauce, or further cooked in liquids; they are also added to hot pot dishes or included as part of the vegetarian dish called '' luohan zhai''. A spicy
Sichuan Sichuan is a province in Southwestern China, occupying the Sichuan Basin and Tibetan Plateau—between the Jinsha River to the west, the Daba Mountains to the north, and the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau to the south. Its capital city is Cheng ...
preparation using firm East Asian tofu is '' mápó dòufu'' (). It involves braised tofu in a
beef Beef is the culinary name for meat from cattle (''Bos taurus''). Beef can be prepared in various ways; Cut of beef, cuts are often used for steak, which can be cooked to varying degrees of doneness, while trimmings are often Ground beef, grou ...
, chili, and fermented bean paste sauce. A vegetarian version is known as ''málà dòufu'' (). Dried tofu is usually not eaten raw but first stewed in a mixture of soy sauce and spices. Some types of dried tofu are pre-seasoned with special blends of spices, so that the tofu may either be called "five-spice tofu" ( ''wǔxiāng dòufu'') or "soy sauce stewed tofu" ( ''lǔshuǐ dòufu''). Dried tofu is typically served thinly sliced with chopped green onions or with slices of meat for added flavor. Tofu bamboos are often used in lamb stew or in a
dessert Dessert is a course (food), course that concludes a meal; the course consists of sweet foods, such as cake, biscuit, ice cream, and possibly a beverage, such as dessert wine or liqueur. Some cultures sweeten foods that are more commonly umami, ...
soup Soup is a primarily liquid food, generally served warm or hot – though it is sometimes served chilled – made by cooking or otherwise combining meat or vegetables with Stock (food), stock, milk, or water. According to ''The Oxford Compan ...
. Tofu skins are often used as wrappers in dim sum. Freeze-dried tofu and frozen tofu are rehydrated and enjoyed in savory soups. These products are often taken along on camping trips since a small bag of them can provide protein for many days. Pickled tofu is commonly used in small amounts together with its soaking liquid to flavor stir-fried or braised
vegetable Vegetables are edible parts of plants that are consumed by humans or other animals as food. This original meaning is still commonly used, and is applied to plants collectively to refer to all edible plant matter, including edible flower, flo ...
dishes (particularly leafy green vegetables such as water spinach). It is often eaten directly as a
condiment A condiment is a preparation that is added to food, typically after cooking, to enhance the Flavoring, flavour, to complement the dish or to impart a specific flavor. Such specific flavors generally add sweetness or pungency, or sharp or piquant ...
with rice or
congee Congee ( , derived from Tamil language, Tamil ), is a form of savoury rice porridge made by boiling rice in a large amount of water until the rice softens. Depending on rice–water ratio, the thickness of congee varies from a Western oatmeal ...
. File:Pidan doufu by fortes in Beijing.jpg, Chinese soft tofu dish, ''
pidan doufu ''Pidan doufu'' 皮蛋豆腐 is a cold tofu or bean curd is a food prepared by Coagulation (milk), coagulating soy milk and then pressing the resulting curds into solid white blocks of varying softness: ''silken'', ''soft'', ''firm'', and ''e ...
'' File:豆腐丝2 (2).JPG, Prepared dried tofu threads (, ''gānsī'') File:Doufuru.JPG, Chòudòufu is a very pungent type of tofu. File:Stinky Tofu Mala.jpg, ''Sichuan-style'' ''(málà chòudòufu)'' numbing spicy stinky tofu File:Tufo and potatoes grilled.jpg, Tofu and potatoes grilled at a street stall in Yuanyang, Yunnan province, China File:Dofuhua-lamma.jpg, '' Douhua'' (), is a soft tofu dish. The fresh tofu is served warm and dressed with sweet syrup. File:Sichaun-style tofu by Meji (9157749159).jpg, A dish prepared from Sichuan-style tofu


Japan

In
Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...
, a common lunch in the summer months is '' hiyayakko'' (), silken or firm East Asian tofu served with freshly grated
ginger Ginger (''Zingiber officinale'') is a flowering plant whose rhizome, ginger root or ginger, is widely used as a spice and a folk medicine. It is an herbaceous perennial that grows annual pseudostems (false stems made of the rolled bases of l ...
, green onions, or '' katsuobushi'' shavings with
soy sauce Soy sauce (sometimes called soya sauce in British English) is a liquid condiment of China, Chinese origin, traditionally made from a fermentation (food), fermented paste of soybeans, roasted cereal, grain, brine, and ''Aspergillus oryzae'' or ''A ...
. In the winter, tofu is frequently eaten as ''yudofu'', which is simmered in a clay pot in ''
kombu ''Konbu'' (from ) is edible kelp mostly from the family Laminariaceae and is widely eaten in East Asia. It may also be referred to as ''dasima'' () or ''haidai'' (). Kelp features in the diets of many civilizations, including Chinese and Icela ...
dashi is a family of stocks used in Japanese cuisine. ''Dashi'' forms the base for miso soup, clear broth soup, noodle broth soup, and many simmering liquids to accentuate the savory flavor known as umami. ''Dashi'' is also mixed into the flour b ...
'', with vegetables such as Chinese cabbage or green onion. Deep fried tofu is called '' atsuage'' (厚揚げ) or ''namaage'' (生揚げ) in Japan. The thinner variety called '' aburaage'' (油揚げ), develops a tofu pouch often used for '' inarizushi''. In Japan, cubes of lightly coated and fried tofu topped with a ''
kombu ''Konbu'' (from ) is edible kelp mostly from the family Laminariaceae and is widely eaten in East Asia. It may also be referred to as ''dasima'' () or ''haidai'' (). Kelp features in the diets of many civilizations, including Chinese and Icela ...
dashi is a family of stocks used in Japanese cuisine. ''Dashi'' forms the base for miso soup, clear broth soup, noodle broth soup, and many simmering liquids to accentuate the savory flavor known as umami. ''Dashi'' is also mixed into the flour b ...
''-based sauce are called '' agedashi dōfu'' (). Soft tofu that has been thinly sliced and deep fried, known as ''aburage'' in Japan, is commonly blanched, seasoned with
soy sauce Soy sauce (sometimes called soya sauce in British English) is a liquid condiment of China, Chinese origin, traditionally made from a fermentation (food), fermented paste of soybeans, roasted cereal, grain, brine, and ''Aspergillus oryzae'' or ''A ...
and
mirin is a type of rice wine and a common ingredient in Japanese cuisine, Japanese cooking. It is similar to sake but with a lower alcohol (drug), alcohol content and higher sugar content. The sugar content is a complex carbohydrate that forms natur ...
and served in dishes such as '' kitsune
udon Udon ( or ) is a thick noodle made from wheat flour, used in Japanese cuisine. There are a variety of ways it is prepared and served. Its simplest form is in a soup as with a mild broth called made from dashi, soy sauce, and mirin. It is usual ...
''. In
Gifu Prefecture is a Prefectures of Japan, prefecture of Japan located in the Chūbu region of Honshu. Gifu Prefecture has a population of 1,910,511 () and has a geographic area of . Gifu Prefecture borders Toyama Prefecture to the north; Ishikawa Prefecture ...
, there is a local specialty called ''komo-dofu'', which consists of tofu that has been wrapped in a ''komo'', or mat of woven straw, which leaves its imprint on the exterior. The wrapped tofu is then boiled in soup stock. Voids within the tofu develop during the boiling process, allowing the soup stock flavor to penetrate and giving it a distinctive porous appearance. Soft tofu can also be broken up or mashed and mixed with raw ingredients prior to being cooked. For example, Japanese '' ganmodoki'' is a mixture of chopped vegetables and mashed tofu. The mixture is bound together with starch and deep-fried. Chinese families sometimes make a steamed meatloaf or meatball dish from equal parts of coarsely mashed tofu and ground pork. Japanese
miso soup is a traditional Japan, Japanese soup consisting of miso paste mixed with a ''dashi'' Stock (food), stock. It is commonly served as part of an meal, meaning "one soup, three dishes," a traditional Japanese meal structure that includes rice, sou ...
is frequently made with tofu. File:TofuWithSoySauceAndCarrot.jpg, Japanese-style silken tofu with soy sauce and a decorative carrot slice File:Atsuage.jpg, '' Atsuage'', thick fried tofu File:Goma tofu by sunday driver in Kyoto.jpg, ''Goma tofu'', made from sesame seeds and kudzu starch File:Yudōfu 001.jpg, ''Yudofu'', or tofu in hot water File:Toyokawa inari-zushi (2010.11.07).jpg, '' Inarizushi'', tofu skin with various fillings File:Tofu in miso soup by cathykid in Taipei.jpg, Tofu in ''miso'' soup File:Ganmodoki.jpg, '' Ganmodoki'' () File:Komo-dofu on sale. Author's own photograph taken 2004-11-22. Freely Licensed.jpg, Local specialty ''komo-dofu'' on sale in a market in Takayama


South Korea

''Dubu'' plays an important part in
Korean cuisine Korean cuisine is the set of foods and culinary styles which are associated with Korean culture. This cuisine has evolved through centuries of social and political change. Originating from ancient Prehistoric Korea, agricultural and nomad ...
. Tofu is often pan-fried and served as ''
banchan ''Banchan'' ( ; ; ) are small side dishes served along with cooked rice in Korean cuisine. ''Banchan'' are often set in the middle of the table to be shared. At the center of the table is the secondary main course, such as ''galbi'' or ''bulg ...
'' with a dipping sauce. It is also used in many soups. Cubes of firm tofu can be seasoned with soy sauce, garlic, and other ingredients before pan-frying. A dish of tofu cubes simmered with similar spicy seasoning is called ''dubu- jorim''. '' Dubu-kimchi'' features blanched tofu served in rectangular slices around the edges of a plate with pan-fried ''
kimchi Kimchi (; ) is a traditional Korean side dish (''banchan'') consisting of salted and fermented vegetables, most often napa cabbage or Korean radish. A wide selection of seasonings are used, including '' gochugaru'' (Korean chili powder), ...
''. This is a popular food to accompany alcoholic drinks ('' anju'').Dubu Kimchi
, ''mykoreankitchen''. Accessed on May 12, 2010.
Soft, unpressed ''sun-dubu'' is used as the main ingredient of '' sundubu-jjigae'' (soft tofu stew),Spicy Korean Soft Tofu Stew (Soondubuchigae)
, ''koreanfood''. Accessed on May 12, 2010.
while other soups and stews such as '' doenjang-guk'' (soybean paste soup), '' doenjang-jjigae'' (soybean paste stew), and '' kimchi-jjigae'' (kimchi stew) tend to have diced firm tofu in them. As in many other East Asian countries, tofu is also enjoyed in a hot pot dish called ''dubu- jeongol'' (tofu hot pot). File:Korean.food-Dubu.gui-01.jpg, Pan-fried tofu served with seasoned
soy sauce Soy sauce (sometimes called soya sauce in British English) is a liquid condiment of China, Chinese origin, traditionally made from a fermentation (food), fermented paste of soybeans, roasted cereal, grain, brine, and ''Aspergillus oryzae'' or ''A ...
for dipping File:Dubu-kimchi.jpg, '' Dubu-kimchi'' (blanched tofu served with stir-fried ''
kimchi Kimchi (; ) is a traditional Korean side dish (''banchan'') consisting of salted and fermented vegetables, most often napa cabbage or Korean radish. A wide selection of seasonings are used, including '' gochugaru'' (Korean chili powder), ...
'') File:Sundubu 2.jpg, Boiled ''sun-dubu'' (extra soft tofu) served in '' ttukbaegi'' File:Sundubu-jjigae 2.jpg, '' Sundubu-jjigae'' (spicy soft tofu stew) File:Dallae-doenjang-guk.jpg, '' Dallae- doenjang-guk'' (soybean paste soup with wild chives and tofu) File:KOCIS Dubu with soy sauce (4556150847).jpg, Chilled tofu served with soy sauce seasonings File:Broccoli-dubu-muchim.jpg, Crumbled tofu and mashed broccoli salad


Southeast Asia


Indonesia

In
Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian Ocean, Indian and Pacific Ocean, Pacific oceans. Comprising over List of islands of Indonesia, 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, ...
, tofu is called ''tahu'', a loanword from the
Hokkien Hokkien ( , ) is a Varieties of Chinese, variety of the Southern Min group of Chinese language, Chinese languages. Native to and originating from the Minnan region in the southeastern part of Fujian in southeastern China, it is also referred ...
Chinese pronunciation of tofu (tāu-hū, 豆腐). In Indonesian markets, tofu is usually available in two forms: ''tahu putih'' or common white firm tofu; and ''tahu goreng'' or fried tofu that has developed a brown skin. ''Tahu yun yi'' or ''tahu Bandung'' is yellow tofu colored with
turmeric Turmeric (), or ''Curcuma longa'' (), is a flowering plant in the ginger family Zingiberaceae. It is a perennial, rhizomatous, herbaceous plant native to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia that requires temperatures between and high ...
. A common cooking technique in many parts of East and Southeast Asia involves deep frying tofu in
vegetable oil Vegetable oils, or vegetable fats, are oils extracted from seeds or from other parts of edible plants. Like animal fats, vegetable fats are ''mixtures'' of triglycerides. Soybean oil, grape seed oil, and cocoa butter are examples of seed ...
,
sunflower The common sunflower (''Helianthus annuus'') is a species of large annual forb of the daisy family Asteraceae. The common sunflower is harvested for its edible oily seeds, which are often eaten as a snack food. They are also used in the pr ...
oil, or
canola file:CanolaBlooms.JPG, Close-up of canola blooms file:Canola Flower.jpg, Canola flower Rapeseed oil is one of the oldest known vegetable oils. There are both Edible oil, edible and industrial forms produced from rapeseed, the seed of several ...
oil. In Indonesia, it is usually fried in
palm oil Palm oil is an edible vegetable oil derived from the mesocarp (reddish pulp) of the fruit of oil palms. The oil is used in food manufacturing, in beauty products, and as biofuel. Palm oil accounted for about 36% of global oils produced from o ...
. Although pre-fried tofu is often sold cold, it is seldom eaten directly and requires additional cooking. Popular Indonesian tofu dishes include '' tahu gejrot'' and '' kupat tahu''. ''Tahu gejrot'' is ''tahu pong'' type of hollow fried tofu cut into small pieces, served with a thin, watery dressing made by blending
palm sugar Palm sugar is a sweetener derived from any variety of palm tree. Palm sugar may be qualified by the type of palm, as in coconut palm sugar. While sugars from different palms may have slightly different compositions, all are processed simila ...
, vinegar, and sweet soy sauce, garnished with chili pepper, garlic, and shallot. '' Kupat tahu'' is slices of tofu served with '' ketupat'' rice cake, usually in peanut sauce dressing. Slices of tofu are usually mixed in '' gado-gado'', '' ketoprak'' and '' siomay''. ''Bacem'' is a method of cooking tofu originating in
Central Java Central Java (, ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia, located in the middle of the island of Java. Its administrative capital is Semarang. It is bordered by West Java in the west, the Indian Ocean and the Special Region of Yogya ...
. The tofu is boiled in coconut water, mixed with ''lengkuas'' (galangal), Indonesian bay leaves,
coriander Coriander (), whose leaves are known as cilantro () in the U.S. and parts of Canada, and dhania in parts of South Asia and Africa, is an annual plant, annual herb (''Coriandrum sativum'') in the family Apiaceae. Most people perceive the ...
,
shallot The shallot is a cultivar group of the onion. Until 2010, the (French red) shallot was classified as a separate species, ''Allium ascalonicum''. The taxon was synonymized with '' Allium cepa'' (the common onion) in 2010, as the difference was t ...
,
garlic Garlic (''Allium sativum'') is a species of bulbous flowering plants in the genus '' Allium''. Its close relatives include the onion, shallot, leek, chives, Welsh onion, and Chinese onion. Garlic is native to central and south Asia, str ...
,
tamarind Tamarind (''Tamarindus indica'') is a Legume, leguminous tree bearing edible fruit that is indigenous to tropical Africa and naturalized in Asia. The genus ''Tamarindus'' is monotypic taxon, monotypic, meaning that it contains only this spe ...
and
palm sugar Palm sugar is a sweetener derived from any variety of palm tree. Palm sugar may be qualified by the type of palm, as in coconut palm sugar. While sugars from different palms may have slightly different compositions, all are processed simila ...
. After the spicy coconut water has completely evaporated, the tofu is fried until it is golden brown. The result is moist but rather firm, sweet, and spicy tofu. This cooked tofu variant is commonly known as ''tahu bacem'' in Indonesian. ''Tahu bacem'' is commonly prepared along with
tempeh Tempe or tempeh (; , ) is a traditional Indonesian food made from fermented soybeans. It is made by a natural culturing and controlled fermentation process that binds soybeans into a cake form. A fungus, '' Rhizopus oligosporus'' or '' Rhizopu ...
and chicken. File:Tahu putih.JPG, ''Tahu putih'' (firm white tofu) File:Tahu digoreng.JPG, '' Tahu goreng'' (fried tofu) has brown skin. File:Tahu sumedang.jpg, ''
Tahu sumedang Tahu sumedang or Tahu bunkeng (Sumedangite tofu, bunkeng tofu) is a Sundanese cuisine, Sundanese deep-fried tofu from Sumedang, West Java, Indonesia. Characteristic Tahu sumedang characteristics are its content half empty or completely empty. It ...
'' with bird's eye chili File:Cirebon Tahu Gejrot.jpg, '' Tahu gejrot'' with thin light spicy sauce File:Laksa Bogor 4.JPG, Yellow tofu (tofu colored with turmeric) on top of laksa File:Bacem tahu.jpg, ''Tahu bacem'', tofu simmered in palm sugar and spices File:Kembang Tahu.jpg, '' Kembang tahu'', served in sweet ginger syrup File:Frikadel Tahu.jpg, ''Perkedel tahu'' goreng (Dutch-Indonesian food based on tofu and Dutch cooking technique) Frikadeller File:Tahu Isi.jpg, ''Tahu isi'', Indonesian fried tofu filled with vegetable, shrimp, or chicken served with bird eye chili and sweet shrimp paste File:Tahu Telor in Surabaya.JPG, ''Tahu telor or Tahu tek'', omelette tofu served with vegetable,
krupuk ' (Javanese language, Javanese) is an Indonesian cuisine, Indonesian deep frying, deep-fried Cracker (food), cracker made from starch and other ingredients that serve as flavouring. They are a popular snack in parts of Southeast Asia, but are ...
, peanut sauce, shrimp paste, sweet soy sauce, and sambal File:Tahu Kupat.jpg, ''Kupat tahu'', tofu served with rice cake, noodles and sweet soy sauce File:Tahu Campur.jpg, ''Tahu campur'', tofu soup with beef and tendon served in broth, soy sauce, shrimp paste, vegetable,
krupuk ' (Javanese language, Javanese) is an Indonesian cuisine, Indonesian deep frying, deep-fried Cracker (food), cracker made from starch and other ingredients that serve as flavouring. They are a popular snack in parts of Southeast Asia, but are ...
and sambal File:Batagor Savoy Homann Bandung.jpg, ''Tahu bakso or batagor'', literally bakso (meatball), tahu (tofu), goreng (fried). Fried tofu filled with fish, tapioca starch, or meat. File:Baksotahu1.jpg, ''Tahu tuna.'' fried tofu filled with grounded tuna. A delicacy from Pacitan,
East Java East Java (, , ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia located in the easternmost third of Java island. It has a land border only with the province of Central Java to the west; the Java Sea and the Indian Ocean border its northern ...
. File:Tahu gimbal in Semarang.jpg, ''Tahu gimbal.'' a tofu dish with peanut sauce and ''gimbal'' (shrimp fritter) from
Semarang Semarang (Javanese script, Javanese: , ''Kutha Semarang'') is the capital and largest city of Central Java province in Indonesia. It was a major port during the Netherlands, Dutch Dutch East Indies, colonial era, and is still an important regio ...
. File:Tahu petis in Semarang.jpg, ''Tahu petis.'' fried tofu filled with ''petis'' (black colored shrimp paste sauce). Originated from
Semarang Semarang (Javanese script, Javanese: , ''Kutha Semarang'') is the capital and largest city of Central Java province in Indonesia. It was a major port during the Netherlands, Dutch Dutch East Indies, colonial era, and is still an important regio ...
,
Central Java Central Java (, ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia, located in the middle of the island of Java. Its administrative capital is Semarang. It is bordered by West Java in the west, the Indian Ocean and the Special Region of Yogya ...
. File:Tahu aci.jpg, ''Tahu aci.'' fried tofu stuffed with
tapioca Tapioca (; ) is a starch extracted from the tubers of the cassava plant (''Manihot esculenta,'' also known as manioc), a species native to the North Region, Brazil, North and Northeast Region, Brazil, Northeast regions of Brazil, but which has ...
starch. Originated from Tegal,
Central Java Central Java (, ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia, located in the middle of the island of Java. Its administrative capital is Semarang. It is bordered by West Java in the west, the Indian Ocean and the Special Region of Yogya ...
. File:Tau Kua Heci.jpg, ''Tau kua heci.'' a tofu dish with prawn. It is from
Binjai Binjai (English: or , Jawi script, Jawi: ), formally Kota Binjai (Binjai City), is an independent city in the North Sumatra province of Indonesia, bordered by Deli Serdang Regency to the east and Langkat Regency to the west. Binjai is connected ...
,
North Sumatra North Sumatra () is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia located in the northern part of the island of Sumatra. Its capital and largest city is Medan on the east coast of the island. It borders Aceh to the northwest, Riau to the sou ...
. File:Tepo tahu.jpg, ''Tepo tahu.'' fried tofu with ''tepo'' (rice cake) and vegetables drizzled with peanut sauce. Originated from central western of
East Java East Java (, , ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia located in the easternmost third of Java island. It has a land border only with the province of Central Java to the west; the Java Sea and the Indian Ocean border its northern ...
. File:TAHU BULAT.jpg, ''Tahu bulat.'' (round tofu). It was created in
Tasikmalaya Tasikmalaya (also known as Tasik) is a landlocked city in West Java, Indonesia. The city is sometimes dubbed ''kota santri'' (city of religious learners) or "the City of a Thousand Pesantrens" for its abundance of Islamic boarding schools. Locat ...
,
West Java West Java (, ) is an Indonesian Provinces of Indonesia, province on the western part of the island of Java, with its provincial capital in Bandung. West Java is bordered by the province of Banten and the country's capital region of Jakarta to t ...
. File:Tahu Walik.jpg, ''Tahu walik.'' a fried tofu from Banyuwangi,
East Java East Java (, , ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia located in the easternmost third of Java island. It has a land border only with the province of Central Java to the west; the Java Sea and the Indian Ocean border its northern ...
.


Philippines

In the
Philippines The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is an Archipelagic state, archipelagic country in Southeast Asia. Located in the western Pacific Ocean, it consists of List of islands of the Philippines, 7,641 islands, with a tot ...
, the sweet delicacy tahô is made of fresh tofu with brown sugar syrup and sagó. The Malaysian and Singaporean version of ''taho'' or ''douhua'' is called ''tofufa'' or ''taufufa''. Warm soft tofu is served in slices (created by scooping it from a wooden bucket with a flat spoon) in a bowl with either pandan-flavored sugar syrup or palm sugar syrup. File:Taho2.jpg, A cup of taho


Vietnam

In Vietnam, tofu pronounced ''đậu phụ'' and ''đậu hũ'' is a variety of soft tofu made and carried around in an earthenware jar. Another popular dish with tofu is bún đậu mắm tôm, which is a dish with rice noodles served with tofu and shrimp paste. File:Bún đậu mắm tôm (2019).jpg, Bún đậu mắm tôm File:Cooking class, Hoi An (32544686338).jpg, Đậu hũ File:Đậu hũ rán chay, tất niên nhà mệ 2018.jpg, Đậu hũ rán (fried đậu hũ) File:Bữa cơm gia đình ng6th4n2021 (tô đậu hũ sốt cà) (1).jpg, Đậu hũ sốt cà (đậu hũ with tomato sauce) File:Món ăn cúng Tất Niên nhà mình, Tết Nhâm Dần 2022 (đậu hũ sốt cà) (3).jpg, Đậu hũ in the Tất niên offering tray


Myanmar


Elsewhere

Generally, the firmer styles of tofu are used for
kebab Kebab ( , ), kebap, kabob (alternative North American spelling), kebob, or kabab (Kashmiri spelling) is a variety of roasted meat dishes that originated in the Middle East. Kebabs consist of cut up ground meat, sometimes with vegetables an ...
s, mock meats, and dishes requiring a consistency that holds together, while the softer styles can be used for desserts, soups, shakes, and sauces. Some people enjoy tofu made and prepared with chocolate and making it into pies and mousse along with other tofu desserts. This came about due to vegans and vegetarians avoiding the usage of items such as milk and eggs. Firm Western tofu types can be barbecued since they hold together on a barbecue grill. These types are usually marinated overnight as the marinade does not easily penetrate the entire block of tofu. (Techniques to increase the penetration of marinades include stabbing repeatedly with a fork or freezing and thawing prior to marinating.) Grated firm Western tofu is sometimes used in conjunction with
textured vegetable protein Textured or texturized vegetable protein (TVP), also known as textured soy protein (TSP), soy meat, or soya chunks, is a defatted soy flour product, a by-product of extracting soybean oil. It is often used as a meat analogue or Meat extenders, ...
(TVP) as a meat substitute. Softer tofus are sometimes used as a dairy-free or low-calorie filler. Silken tofu may be used to replace cheese in certain dishes, such as
lasagna Lasagna (, ; ), also known by the plural form lasagne (), is a type of pasta Pasta (, ; ) is a type of food typically made from an Leavening agent, unleavened dough of wheat flour mixed with water or Eggs as food, eggs, and formed in ...
. Tofu has also been fused into other cuisines in the West, for instance in Indian-style curries. Tofu and soy protein can be industrially processed to match the textures and flavors of
cheese Cheese is a type of dairy product produced in a range of flavors, textures, and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk (usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats or sheep). During prod ...
,
pudding Pudding is a type of food which can either be a dessert served after the main meal or a Savoury (dish), savoury (salty or sweet, and spicy) dish, served as part of the main meal. In the United States, ''pudding'' means a sweet, milk-based des ...
, eggs,
bacon Bacon is a type of Curing (food preservation), salt-cured pork made from various cuts of meat, cuts, typically the pork belly, belly or less fatty parts of the back. It is eaten as a side dish (particularly in breakfasts), used as a central in ...
, and similar products. Tofu's texture can also be altered by
freezing Freezing is a phase transition in which a liquid turns into a solid when its temperature is lowered below its freezing point. For most substances, the melting and freezing points are the same temperature; however, certain substances possess dif ...
,
purée A purée (or mash) is cooked food, usually vegetables, fruits or legumes, that has been ground, pressed, blended or sieved to the consistency of a creamy paste or liquid. Purées of specific foods are often known by specific names, e.g., appl ...
ing, and
cooking Cooking, also known as cookery or professionally as the culinary arts, is the art, science and craft of using heat to make food more palatable, digestible, nutritious, or Food safety, safe. Cooking techniques and ingredients vary widely, from ...
. In
the Americas The Americas, sometimes collectively called America, are a landmass comprising the totality of North America and South America.'' Webster's New World College Dictionary'', 2010 by Wiley Publishing, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio. When viewed as a sin ...
,
Europe Europe is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east ...
,
Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising mainland Australia, the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and list of islands of Australia, numerous smaller isl ...
and
New Zealand New Zealand () is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and List of islands of New Zealand, over 600 smaller islands. It is the List of isla ...
, tofu is frequently associated with
vegetarianism Vegetarianism is the practice of abstaining from the Eating, consumption of meat (red meat, poultry, seafood, insects as food, insects, and the flesh of any other animal). It may also include abstaining from eating all by-products of animal slau ...
and
veganism Veganism is the practice of abstaining from the use of animal products and the consumption of animal source foods, and an associated philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals. A person who practices veganism is known as a vega ...
, as it is a source of non-animal protein. In India tofu is used as a low-fat replacement for paneer, providing a similar texture.


Nutrition

Raw regular tofu is 85% water, 8%
protein Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residue (biochemistry), residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including Enzyme catalysis, catalysing metab ...
, 2%
carbohydrate A carbohydrate () is a biomolecule composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms. The typical hydrogen-to-oxygen atomic ratio is 2:1, analogous to that of water, and is represented by the empirical formula (where ''m'' and ''n'' ...
s, and 5%
fat In nutrition science, nutrition, biology, and chemistry, fat usually means any ester of fatty acids, or a mixture of such chemical compound, compounds, most commonly those that occur in living beings or in food. The term often refers specif ...
(table). In a reference amount of , tofu supplies 76
calorie The calorie is a unit of energy that originated from the caloric theory of heat. The large calorie, food calorie, dietary calorie, kilocalorie, or kilogram calorie is defined as the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one liter o ...
s, and is a rich source (20% or more of the
Daily Value In the U.S. and Canada, the Reference Daily Intake (RDI) is used in nutrition labeling on food and dietary supplement products to indicate the daily intake level of a nutrient that is considered to be sufficient to meet the requirements of 97� ...
) of
calcium Calcium is a chemical element; it has symbol Ca and atomic number 20. As an alkaline earth metal, calcium is a reactive metal that forms a dark oxide-nitride layer when exposed to air. Its physical and chemical properties are most similar to it ...
,
copper Copper is a chemical element; it has symbol Cu (from Latin ) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkish-orang ...
,
iron Iron is a chemical element; it has symbol Fe () and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table. It is, by mass, the most common element on Earth, forming much of Earth's o ...
, and
manganese Manganese is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol Mn and atomic number 25. It is a hard, brittle, silvery metal, often found in minerals in combination with iron. Manganese was first isolated in the 1770s. It is a transition m ...
(table).


Chemistry

Tofu is made from soy milk which is a
turbid Turbidity is the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by large numbers of individual particles that are generally invisible to the naked eye, similar to smoke in air. The measurement of turbidity is a key test of both water clarity and wate ...
colloid A colloid is a mixture in which one substance consisting of microscopically dispersed insoluble particles is suspended throughout another substance. Some definitions specify that the particles must be dispersed in a liquid, while others exte ...
liquid/solution. Tofu structure is related to soy milk components, particularly colloid components such as protein particles and oil globules. Protein particle content increases with the increase of the globulin ratio in the soybeans. Tofu varieties ensue from adding coagulants at various concentrations.


Proteins

The two main components of the soybean important in tofu making are the 11S component, containing glycinin, and the 7S subunit, containing hemagglutinins, lipoxygenases, b-amylase, and β-conglycinin. The major soy protein components, in the two fractions that make up 65–85% of the proteins in soybeans, include glycinin and β-conglycinin. The soybean protein consists of many different subunits, which are sensitive to heat, pH, and ionic strength and become unevenly distributed among soluble and particulate fractions due to hydrophilic and hydrophobic interaction because of the amino acid composition.


Politics

Tofu has been used by politicians to attack their opponents. In October 2022 Suella Braverman attacked the " Guardian-reading, tofu-eating wokerati" in the British
House of Commons The House of Commons is the name for the elected lower house of the Bicameralism, bicameral parliaments of the United Kingdom and Canada. In both of these countries, the Commons holds much more legislative power than the nominally upper house of ...
, blaming them for obstructing the roads. In April 2025
Markus Söder Markus Thomas Theodor Söder (born 5 January 1967) is a German politician from Bavaria, Germany serving as List of Ministers-President of Bavaria, Minister-President of Bavaria since 2018 and Leader of the Christian Social Union in Bavaria, lead ...
, the head of the German Christian Social Union said that Germany could now look forward to more Leberkäse — a kind of meatloaf — instead of "Tofu-mania".


See also

*
Buddhist cuisine Buddhist cuisine is an Asian cuisine that is followed by Bhikkhu, monks and many believers from areas historically influenced by Mahayana Buddhism. It is vegetarian or vegan, and it is based on the Dharmic concept of ahimsa (non-violence). Vege ...
* Douhua * List of soy-based foods *
List of tofu dishes This is a list of tofu dishes. Tofu, also called bean curd, is a food made by coagulating soy milk and then pressing the resulting curds into soft white blocks. It is a component in many East Asian and Southeast Asian cuisines. Tofu dishes ...
* Los Angeles Tofu Festival *
Oncom Oncom ( IPA: ) is a fermented food which is one of the traditional staples of the Sundanese cuisine of Indonesia. There are two kinds of oncom: red oncom and black oncom. The food is closely related to tempeh; both are fermented using mold. U ...
* Seitan *
Tempeh Tempe or tempeh (; , ) is a traditional Indonesian food made from fermented soybeans. It is made by a natural culturing and controlled fermentation process that binds soybeans into a cake form. A fungus, '' Rhizopus oligosporus'' or '' Rhizopu ...
*
Veganism Veganism is the practice of abstaining from the use of animal products and the consumption of animal source foods, and an associated philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals. A person who practices veganism is known as a vega ...
* Vegetarian cuisine


Notes


References


Sources

* * * * . * * * . * * * * . (In Chinese.) * . *


Further reading

* . * Knopper, Melissa. (Jan 2002), ''The joy of soy'', The Rotarian, Vol. 180, No. 1, p. 16, * .


External links


''The Oxford companion to food'' Alan Davidson, Tom Jaine
{{Use dmy dates, date=September 2020 Ancient dishes Buddhist cuisine Chinese cuisine Japanese cuisine Korean cuisine Meat substitutes Soy-based foods Vegetarian dishes of China Vietnamese cuisine