Bantu languages

The Bantu languages (English: , Proto-Bantu: *bantʊ̀), or Ntu languages are a language family of about 600 languages of Central, Southern, Eastern and Southeast Africa. They form the largest branch of the Southern Bantoid languages.

The total number of Bantu languages is estimated at between 440 and 680 distinct languages, depending on the definition of "language" versus "dialect"."Guthrie (1967–71) names some 440 Bantu 'varieties', Grimes (2000) has 501 (minus a few 'extinct' or 'almost extinct'), Bastin ''et al.'' (1999) have 542, Maho (this volume) has some 660, and Mann ''et al.'' (1987) have ''c.'' 680." Derek Nurse, 2006, "Bantu Languages", in the ''Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics'', p. 2
:Ethnologue report for Southern Bantoid"
lists a total of 535 languages. The count includes 13 Mbam languages, which are not always included under "Narrow Bantu". Many Ntu languages borrow words from each other, and some are mutually intelligible. Some of the languages are spoken by a very small number of people, for example the Kabwa language was estimated in 2007 to be spoken by only 8500 people but was assessed to be a distinct language.

The total number of Ntu language speakers is estimated to be around 350 million in 2015 (roughly 30% of the population of Africa or 5% of the world population). Bantu languages are largely spoken southeast of Cameroon, and throughout Central, Southern, Eastern, and Southeast Africa. About one-sixth of Bantu speakers, and one-third of Bantu languages, are found in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

The most widely spoken Ntu language by number of speakers is Swahili, with 16 million native speakers and 80 million L2 speakers (2015). Most native speakers of Swahili live in Tanzania, where it is a national language, while as a second language, it is taught as a mandatory subject in many schools in East Africa, and is a lingua franca of the East African Community.

Other major Ntu languages include Lingala with more than 20 million speakers ( Congo, DRC), followed by Zulu with 13.56 million speakers (South Africa), Xhosa at a distant third place with 8.2 million speakers (South Africa and Zimbabwe), and Shona with less than 10 million speakers (if Manyika and Ndau are included), while Sotho-Tswana languages ( Sotho, Tswana and Pedi) have more than 15 million speakers (across Botswana, Lesotho, South Africa, and Zambia). Zimbabwe has Kalanga, Matebele, Nambiya, and Xhosa speakers. ''Ethnologue'' separates the largely mutually intelligible Kinyarwanda and Kirundi, which together have 20 million speakers.

Name

The similarity among dispersed Bantu languages had been observed as early as the 17th century. The term ''Bantu'' as a name for the group was not coined but "noticed" or "identified" (as ''Bâ-ntu'') by Wilhelm Bleek as the first European in 1857 or 1858, and popularized in his ''Comparative Grammar'' of 1862. He noticed the term to represent the word for "people" in loosely reconstructed Proto-Bantu, from the plural noun class prefix '' *ba-'' categorizing "people", and the root ''*ntʊ̀-'' "some (entity), any" (e.g. Xhosa ''umntu'' "person", ''abantu'' "people"; Zulu ''umuntu'' "person", ''abantu'' "people").

There is no native term for the people who speak Bantu languages because they are not an ethnic group. People speaking Bantu languages refer to their languages by ethnic endonyms, which did not have an indigenous concept prior to European contact for the larger ethnolinguistic phylum named by 19th-century European linguists. Bleek's identification was inspired by the anthropological observation of groups frequently self-identifying as "people" or "the true people" (as is the case, for example, with the term ''Khoikhoi'', but this is a ''kare'' "praise address" and not an ethnic name).

The term ''narrow Bantu'', excluding those languages classified as Bantoid by Malcolm Guthrie (1948), was introduced in the 1960s.''Studies in African Linguistics'': Supplement, Issues 3–4, Department of Linguistics and the African Studies Center, University of California, Los Angeles (1969), p. 7.

The prefix ''ba-'' specifically refers to people. Endonymically, the term for cultural objects, including language, is formed with the ''ki-'' noun class (Nguni '' ísi-''), as in KiSwahili (Swahili language and culture), IsiZulu (Zulu language and culture) and KiGanda (Ganda religion and culture).

In the 1980s, South African linguists suggested referring to these languages as ''KiNtu.'' The word ''kintu'' exists in some places, but it means "thing", with no relation to the concept of "language". In addition, delegates at the African Languages Association of Southern Africa conference in 1984 reported that, in some places, the term ''Kintu'' has a derogatory significance. This is because ''kintu'' refers to "things" and is used as a dehumanizing term for people who have lost their dignity.

In addition, ''Kintu'' is a figure in some mythologies.

In the 1990s, the term ''Kintu'' was still occasionally used by South African linguists.as in Noverino N. Canonici, ''A Manual of Comparative Kintu Studies'', Zulu Language and Literature, University of Natal (1994). But in contemporary decolonial South African linguistics, the term ''Ntu languages'' is used.

Within the fierce debate among linguists about the word "Bantu", Seidensticker (2024) indicates that there has been a "profound conceptual trend in which a "purely technical ermwithout any non-linguistic connotations was transformed into a designation referring indiscriminately to language, culture, society, and race"."

Origin

The Bantu languages descend from a common Proto-Bantu language, which is believed to have been spoken in what is now Cameroon in Central Africa.Philip J. Adler, Randall L. Pouwels, ''World Civilizations: To 1700 Volume 1 of World Civilizations'', (Cengage Learning: 2007), p.169. An estimated 2,500–3,000 years ago (1000 BC to 500 BC), speakers of the Proto-Bantu language began a series of migrations eastward and southward, carrying agriculture with them. This Bantu expansion came to dominate Sub-Saharan Africa east of Cameroon, an area where Bantu peoples now constitute nearly the entire population.Toyin Falola, Aribidesi Adisa Usman, ''Movements, borders, and identities in Africa'', (University Rochester Press: 2009), p.4. Some other sources estimate the Bantu Expansion started closer to 3000 BC.Gemma Berniell-Lee et al
"Genetic and Demographic Implications of the Bantu Expansion: Insights from Human Paternal Lineages"
, Oxford Journals

The technical term Bantu, meaning "human beings" or simply "people", was first used by Wilhelm Bleek (1827–1875), as the concept is reflected in many of the languages of this group. A common characteristic of Bantu languages is that they use words such as ''muntu'' or ''mutu'' for "human being" or in simplistic terms "person", and the plural prefix for human nouns starting with ''mu-'' (class 1) in most languages is ''ba-'' (class 2), thus giving ''bantu'' for "people". Bleek, and later Carl Meinhof, pursued extensive studies comparing the grammatical structures of Bantu languages.

Classification

The most widely used classification is an alphanumeric coding system developed by Malcolm Guthrie in his 1948 classification of the Bantu languages. It is mainly geographic. The term "narrow Bantu" was coined by the ''Benue–Congo Working Group'' to distinguish Bantu as recognized by Guthrie, from the Bantoid languages not recognized as Bantu by Guthrie.

In recent times, the distinctiveness of Narrow Bantu as opposed to the other Southern Bantoid languages has been called into doubt, but the term is still widely used.

There is no true genealogical classification of the (Narrow) Bantu languages. Until recently most attempted classifications only considered languages that happen to fall within traditional Narrow Bantu, but there seems to be a continuum with the related languages of South Bantoid.

At a broader level, the family is commonly split in two depending on the reflexes of proto-Bantu tone patterns: many Bantuists group together parts of zones A through D (the extent depending on the author) as ''Northwest Bantu'' or ''Forest Bantu'', and the remainder as ''Central Bantu'' or ''Savanna Bantu''. The two groups have been described as having mirror-image tone systems: where Northwest Bantu has a high tone in a cognate, Central Bantu languages generally have a low tone, and vice versa.

Northwest Bantu is more divergent internally than Central Bantu, and perhaps less conservative due to contact with non-Bantu Niger–Congo languages; Central Bantu is likely the innovative line cladistically. Northwest Bantu is not a coherent family, but even for Central Bantu the evidence is lexical, with little evidence that it is a historically valid group.

Another attempt at a detailed genetic classification to replace the Guthrie system is the 1999 "Tervuren" proposal of Bastin, Coupez, and Mann. However, it relies on lexicostatistics, which, because of its reliance on overall similarity rather than shared innovations, may predict spurious groups of conservative languages that are not closely related. Meanwhile, ''Ethnologue'' has added languages to the Guthrie classification which Guthrie overlooked, while removing the Mbam languages (much of zone A), and shifting some languages between groups (much of zones D and E to a new zone J, for example, and part of zone L to K, and part of M to F) in an apparent effort at a semi-genetic, or at least semi-areal, classification. This has been criticized for sowing confusion in one of the few unambiguous ways to distinguish Bantu languages. Nurse & Philippson (2006) evaluate many proposals for low-level groups of Bantu languages, but the result is not a complete portrayal of the family. ''Glottolog'' has incorporated many of these into their classification.

The languages that share Dahl's law may also form a valid group, Northeast Bantu. The infobox at right lists these together with various low-level groups that are fairly uncontroversial, though they continue to be revised. The development of a rigorous genealogical classification of many branches of Niger–Congo, not just Bantu, is hampered by insufficient data.Bryan, M.A.(compiled by), ''The Bantu Languages of Africa''. Published for the International African Institute, Oxford University Press, 1959.

Computational phylogenetic classifications

Simplified phylogeny of northwestern branches of Bantu by Grollemund (2012):

Other computational phylogenetic analyses of Bantu include Currie et al. (2013), Grollemund et al. (2015), Rexova et al. 2006, Holden et al., 2016, and Whiteley et al. 2018.

Glottolog classification

Glottolog (2021) does not consider the older geographic classification by Guthrie relevant for its ongoing classification based on more recent linguistic studies, and divides Bantu into four main branches: Bantu A-B10-B20-B30, Central-Western Bantu, East Bantu and Mbam-Bube-Jarawan.

Language structure

Guthrie reconstructed both the phonemic inventory and the vocabulary of Proto-Bantu.

The most prominent grammatical characteristic of Bantu languages is the extensive use of affixes (see Sotho grammar and Ganda noun classes for detailed discussions of these affixes). Each noun belongs to a class, and each language may have several numbered classes, somewhat like grammatical gender in European languages. The class is indicated by a prefix that is part of the noun, as well as agreement markers on verb and qualificative roots connected with the noun. Plurality is indicated by a change of class, with a resulting change of prefix. All Bantu languages are agglutinative.

The verb has a number of prefixes, though in the western languages these are often treated as independent words. In Swahili, for example, ''Kitoto kidogo kimekisoma'' (for comparison, ''Kamwana kadoko karikuverenga'' in Shona language) means 'The small child has read it book. ''kitoto'' 'child' governs the adjective prefix ''ki-'' (representing the diminutive form of the word) and the verb subject prefix ''a-''. Then comes perfect tense ''-me-'' and an object marker ''-ki-'' agreeing with implicit ''kitabu'' 'book' (from Arabic ''kitab''). Pluralizing to 'children' gives ''Vitoto vidogo vimekisoma'' (''Vana vadoko varikuverenga'' in Shona), and pluralizing to 'books' (''vitabu'') gives ''vitoto vidogo vimevisoma''.

Bantu words are typically made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most languages having syllables exclusively of this type. The Bushong language recorded by Vansina, however, has final consonants, while slurring of the final syllable (though written) is reported as common among the Tonga of Malawi. The morphological shape of Bantu words is typically CV, VCV, CVCV, VCVCV, etc.; that is, any combination of CV (with possibly a V- syllable at the start). In other words, a strong claim for this language family is that almost all words end in a vowel, precisely because closed syllables (CVC) are not permissible in most of the documented languages, as far as is understood.

This tendency to avoid consonant clusters in some positions is important when words are imported from English or other non-Bantu languages. An example from Chewa: the word "school", borrowed from English, and then transformed to fit the sound patterns of this language, is ''sukulu''. That is, ''sk-'' has been broken up by inserting an epenthetic ''-u-''; ''-u'' has also been added at the end of the word. Another example is ''buledi'' for "bread". Similar effects are seen in loanwords for other non-African CV languages like Japanese. However, a clustering of sounds at the beginning of a syllable can be readily observed in such languages as Shona, and the Makua languages.

With few exceptions, such as Kiswahili and Rutooro, Bantu languages are tonal and have two to four register tones.

Reduplication

Reduplication is a common morphological phenomenon in Bantu languages and is usually used to indicate frequency or intensity of the action signalled by the (unreduplicated) verb stem.Abdulaziz Lodhi,
Verbal extensions in Bantu (the case of Swahili and Nyamwezi)
. ''Africa & Asia,'' 2002, 2:4–26, Göteborg University

*Example: in Swahili, ''piga'' means "strike", ''pigapiga'' means "strike repeatedly".

Well-known words and names that have reduplication include:
* Bafana Bafana, a football team
* Chipolopolo, a football team
* Eric Djemba-Djemba, a footballer
* Lomana LuaLua, a footballer

Repetition emphasizes the repeated word in the context that it is used. For instance, "Mwenda pole hajikwai," means "He who goes slowly doesn't trip," while, "Pole pole ndio mwendo," means "A slow but steady pace wins the race." The latter repeats "pole" to emphasize the consistency of slowness of the pace.

As another example, "Haraka haraka" would mean "hurrying just for the sake of hurrying" (reckless hurry), as in "Njoo! Haraka haraka" ome here! Hurry, hurry

In contrast, there are some words in some of the languages in which reduplication has the opposite meaning. It usually denotes short durations, or lower intensity of the action, and also means a few repetitions or a little bit more.

*Example 1: In (Xi)Tsonga and (Chi)Shona, ''famba'' means "walk" while ''famba-famba'' means "walk around".
*Example 2: in isiZulu and (si)Swati ''hamba'' means "go", ''hambahamba'' means "go a little bit, but not much".
*Example 3: in both of the above languages ''shaya'' means "strike", ''shayashaya'' means "strike a few more times lightly, but not heavy strikes and not too many times".
*Example 4: In Shona ' means "scratch", ''Kwenyakwenya'' means "scratch excessively or a lot".
*Example 5: In Luhya ''cheenda'' means "walk",'' cheendacheenda'' means "take a walk but not far off", as in buying time before something is ready or a situation or time is right.

Noun class

The following is a list of nominal classes in Bantu languages:

Syntax

Virtually all Bantu languages have a subject–verb–object word order, with some exceptions, such as
the Nen language, which has a subject–object–verb word order.

By country

Following is an incomplete list of the principal Bantu languages of each country. Included are those languages that constitute at least 1% of the population and have at least 10% the number of speakers of the largest Bantu language in the country.

Most languages are referred to in English without the class prefix (''Swahili'', ''Tswana'', ''Ndebele''), but are sometimes seen with the (language-specific) prefix (''Kiswahili'', ''Setswana'', ''Sindebele''). In a few cases prefixes are used to distinguish languages with the same root in their name, such as Tshilubà and Kiluba (both ''Luba''), Umbundu and Kimbundu (both ''Mbundu''). The prefixless form typically does not occur in the language itself, but is the basis for other words based on the ethnicity. So, in the country of Botswana the people are the '' Batswana'', one person is a ''Motswana'', and the language is '' Setswana''; and in Uganda, centred on the kingdom of ''Buganda'', the dominant ethnicity are the '' Baganda'' (singular ''Muganda''), whose language is ''Luganda''.

Lingua franca

* Swahili (Kiswahili) (350,000; tens of millions as L2)

Angola

* South Mbundu (Umbundu) (4 million)
* Central North Mbundu (Kimbundu) (3 million)
* North Bakongo (Kikongo) (576,800)
* Ovambo (Ambo) (Oshiwambo) (500,000)
* Luvale (Chiluvale) (500,000)
* Chokwe (Chichokwe) (500,000)

Botswana

* Tswana (Setswana) (1.6 million)
* Kalanga (Ikalanga) (150,000)

Burundi

:''Swahili is a recognized national language''
*Kirundi (8.5 – 10.5 million)

Cameroon

* Beti (1.7 million: 900,000 Bulu, 600,000 Ewondo, 120,000 Fang, 60,000 Eton, 30,000 Bebele)
* Basaa (230,000)
* Duala (350,000)
* Manenguba languages (230,000)

Central African Republic

* Mbati (60,000)
* Aka (30,000)
* Pande (8,870)
* Ngando (5,000)
* Ukhwejo
* Kako
* Mpiemo
* Bodo
* Kari

Comoros

* Shingazija
* Shindzuani
* Shimwali

Democratic Republic of the Congo

:''Swahili is a recognized national language''
* Lingala (Ngala) (2 million; 7 million with L2 speakers)
* Luba-Kasai (Tshiluba) (6.5 million)
* Kituba (4.5 million), a Bantu creole
* Kongo (Kikongo) (3.5 million)
* Luba-Katanga (Kiluba) (1.5+ million)
* Songe (Lusonge) (1+ million)
* Nande (Orundandi) (1 million)
* Tetela (Otetela) (800,000)
* Yaka (Iyaka) (700,000+)
* Shi (700,000)
* Yombe (Kiyombe) (670,000)
* Lele (Bashilele) (26,000)

Equatorial Guinea

* Beti ( Fang) (300,000)
* Bube (40,000)

Eswatini

* Swazi (Siswati) (1 million)

Gabon

* Baka
* Barama
* Bekwel
* Benga
* Bubi
* Bwisi
*Duma
* Fang (500,000)
* Kendell
* Kanin
* Sake
* Sangu
* Seki
* Sighu
* Simba
* Sira
* Northern Teke
* Western Teke
* Tsaangi
* Tsogo
* Vili (3,600)
* Vumbu
* Wandji
* Wumbvu
* Yangho
* Yasa

India

* Sidi

Kenya

:''Swahili is the national language. English and Swahili are official languages.''
* Gikuyu (8 million)
*Luhya (6.8 million)
*Kamba (4 million)
* Meru (Kimeru) (2.7 million)
* Gusii (2 million)
* Mijikenda ( Giriama, Kambe, Ribe, Rabai, Kauma, Chonyi, Jibana, Digo and Duruma)
* Taita
*Embu
* Mbeere
* Pokomo
* Kuria
* Suba
* Swahili

Lesotho

*Sesotho (1.8 million)
* Zulu (Isizulu) (300,000)
* Xhosa (Isixhosa)

Madagascar

* Shimaore
* Shindzuani

Malawi

* Chewa (Nyanja) (Chichewa) (7 million)
* Tumbuka (1 million)
* Yao (1 million)

Mayotte

* Shimaore

Mozambique

:''Swahili is a recognized national language''
* Makhuwa (4 million; 7.4 million all Makua)
*Tsonga (Xitsonga) (3.1 million)
* Shona (Ndau) (1.6 million)
* Lomwe (1.5 million)
* Sena (1.3 million)
* Tswa (1.2 million)
* Chuwabu (1.0 million)
* Chopi (800,000)
* Ronga (700,000)
* Chewa (Nyanja) (Chichewa) (600,000)
* Yao (Chiyao) (500,000)
* Nyungwe (Cinyungwe/Nhungue)(400,000)
*Tonga (400,000)
* Makonde (400,000)
* Nathembo (25,000)

Namibia

* Ovambo (Ambo, Oshiwambo) (1,500,000)
* Herero (200,000)
* Kavango (100,000)
* Lozi (Silozi)

Nigeria

* Jarawa (250,000)
* Mbula-Bwazza (100,000)
* Kulung (40,000)
*Bile (38,000)
*Lame (10,000)
* Mama (2,000–3,000)
* Shiki (1,200)
* Gwa
* Labir
* Dulbu

Pakistan

* Sidi

Republic of the Congo

* Kituba (1.2+ million) Bantu creole* Kongo (Kikongo) (1.0 million)
* Teke languages (500,000)
* Yombe (350,000)
* Suundi (120,000)
* Mbosi (110,000)
*Lingala (100,000; ? L2 speakers)

Rwanda

:''Swahili, Kinyarwanda, English, and French are official languages''
*Kinyarwanda (Kinyarwanda) (10 – 12 million)

Somalia

* Swahili (Mwini dialect)
* Chimwini
* Mushungulu

South Africa

According to the South African National Census of 2011:South African National Census of 2011
* Zulu (Isizulu) (11,587,374)
* Xhosa (Isixhosa) (8,154,258)
* Sepedi (4,618,576)
* Tswana (Setswana) (4,067,248)
* Sotho (Sesotho) (3,849,563)
*Tsonga (Xitsonga) (2,277,148)
* Swazi (Siswati) (1,297,046)
* Venda (Tshivenda) (1,209,388)
* Southern Ndebele (Transvaal Ndebele) (1,090,223)
**Total Nguni: 22,406,049 (61.98%)
**Total Sotho-Tswana: 13,744,775 (38.02%)
**Total official indigenous language speakers: 36,150,824 (69.83%)

Tanzania

:''Swahili is the national language''
* Sukuma (5.5 million)
* Gogo (1.5 million)
* Haya (Kihaya) (1.3 million)
* Chaga (Kichaga) (1.2+ million : 600,000 Mochi, 300,000+ Machame, 300,000+ Vunjo)
* Nyamwezi (1.0 million)
* Makonde (1.0 million)
* Ha (1.0 million)
* Nyakyusa (800,000)
* Hehe (800,000)
* Luguru (700,000)
* Bena (600,000)
* Shambala (650,000)
* Nyaturu (600,000)

Uganda

:''Swahili and English are official languages''
*Luganda (9,295,300)
* Runyankore (4,436,000)
* Lusoga (3,904,600)
* Rukiga (3,129,000)
* Masaba (Lumasaba) (2.7 million)
* Runyoro (1,273,000)
* Konjo (1,118,000)
* Rutooro (1,111,000)
* Lugwere (816,000)
*Kinyarwanda (750,000)
* Samia (684,000)
* Ruuli (250,000)
* Talinga Bwisi (133,000)
* Gungu (110,000)
* Amba (56,000)
* Singa

Yemen

* Socotra Swahili

Zambia

* Aushi (Unknown)
* Bemba (3.3 million)
*Tonga (1.0 million)
* Chewa (Nyanja) (Chichewa) (800,000)
* Kaonde (240,000)
* Lozi (Silozi) (600,000)
* Lala-Bisa (600,000)
* Nsenga (550,000)
* Tumbuka (Chitumbuka) (500,000)
* Lunda (450,000)
* Nyiha (400,000+)
* Mambwe-Lungu (400,000)

Zimbabwe

*Shona languages (15 million incl. Karanga, Zezuru, Korekore, Ndau, Manyika)
* Northern Ndebele (IsiNdebele) (estimated 2 million)
*Tonga
* Chewa/ Nyanja (Chichewa/ChiNyanja)
* Venda
* Kalanga
* Xhosa

Geographic areas

Map 1 shows Bantu languages in Africa and map 2 a magnification of the Benin, Nigeria and Cameroon area, as of July 2017.

Bantu words popularised in western cultures

A case has been made out for borrowings of many place-names and even misremembered rhymes – chiefly from one of the Luba varieties – in the USA.

Some words from various Bantu languages have been borrowed into western languages. These include:

Writing systems

Along with the Latin script and Arabic script orthographies, there are also some modern indigenous writing systems used for Bantu languages:
*The Mwangwego alphabet is an abugida created in 1979 that is sometimes used to write the Chewa language and other languages of Malawi.
*The Mandombe script is an abugida that is used to write the Bantu languages of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, mainly by the Kimbanguist movement.
*The Isibheqe Sohlamvu or Ditema tsa Dinoko script is a featural syllabary used to write the Sintu or Southern Bantu languages.

See also

* Meeussen's rule
*Nguni languages
* Proto-Bantu Swadesh list

References

Bibliography

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External links

Arte da lingua de Angola: oeferecida [sic] a virgem Senhora N. do Rosario, mãy, Senhora dos mesmos pretos
The art of the language of Angola, by Father Pedro Dias, 1697, Lisbon, artedalinguadean
Comparative Bantu Online Dictionary
linguistics.berkeley.edu, includes comprehensive bibliography.
*Maho, Jouni Fili
NUGL Online. The online version of the New Updated Guthrie List, a referential classification of the Bantu languages
goto.glocalnet.net, 4 June 2009, 120pp. Guthrie 1948 in detail, with subsequent corrections and corresponding ISO codes.
Bantu online resources
bantu-languages.com, Jacky Maniacky, 7 July 2007, including


bantu-languages.com (in French)
Ehret's compilation of classifications by Klieman, Bastin, himself, and others
pp 204–09, ucla.edu, 24 June 2012
*Contini-Morava, Ellen.
Noun Classification in Swahili
'. 1994, Virginia.edu

linguistics.berkeley.edu 529 names
Introduction to the languages of South Africa
salanguages.com
Narrow Bantu
Journal of West African Languages

ugandatravelguide.com

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bantu languages

Synthetic languages
Agglutinative languages