BAITSSS (Backward-Averaged Iterative Two-Source Surface temperature and energy balance Solution) is biophysical

Evapotranspiration Evapotranspiration (ET) is the combined processes by which water moves from the earth’s surface into the atmosphere. It covers both water evaporation (movement of water to the air directly from soil, canopies, and water bodies) and transpir ...

(ET)

computer model Computer simulation is the process of mathematical modelling, performed on a computer, which is designed to predict the behaviour of, or the outcome of, a real-world or physical system. The reliability of some mathematical models can be det ...

that determines

water Water (chemical formula ) is an inorganic, transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless chemical substance, which is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all known living organisms (in which it acts as ...

use, primarily in

agriculture Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled peop ...

landscape A landscape is the visible features of an area of land, its landforms, and how they integrate with natural or man-made features, often considered in terms of their aesthetic appeal.''New Oxford American Dictionary''. A landscape includes th ...

, using

remote sensing Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without making physical contact with the object, in contrast to in situ or on-site observation. The term is applied especially to acquiring information about Ear ...

-based information. It was developed and refined by Ramesh Dhungel and the water resources group at

University of Idaho The University of Idaho (U of I, or UIdaho) is a public land-grant research university in Moscow, Idaho. It is the state's land-grant and primary research university,, and the lead university in the Idaho Space Grant Consortium. The University ...

's Kimberly Research and Extension Center since 2010. It has been used in different areas in the

United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 U.S. state, states, a Washington, D.C., federal district, five ma ...

including

Southern Idaho Southern Idaho is a generic geographical term roughly analogous with the areas of the U.S. state of Idaho located in the Mountain Time Zone. It particularly refers to the combined areas of the Boise metropolitan area, the Magic Valley and Eastern ...

Northern California Northern California (colloquially known as NorCal) is a geographic and cultural region that generally comprises the northern portion of the U.S. state of California. Spanning the state's northernmost 48 counties, its main population centers incl ...

, northwest

Kansas Kansas () is a state in the Midwestern United States. Its capital is Topeka, and its largest city is Wichita. Kansas is a landlocked state bordered by Nebraska to the north; Missouri to the east; Oklahoma to the south; and Colorado to ...

Texas Texas (, ; Spanish language, Spanish: ''Texas'', ''Tejas'') is a state in the South Central United States, South Central region of the United States. At 268,596 square miles (695,662 km2), and with more than 29.1 million residents in 2 ...

, and

Arizona Arizona ( ; nv, Hoozdo Hahoodzo ; ood, Alĭ ṣonak ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southwestern United States. It is the list of U.S. states and territories by area, 6th largest and the list of U.S. states and territories by population, 14 ...

History of development

BAITSSS originated from the research of Ramesh Dhungel, a graduate student at the

, who joined a project called "Producing and integrating time series of gridded evapotranspiration for irrigation management, hydrology and remote sensing applications" under professor Richard G. Allen. In 2012, the initial version of

model was developed using the Python

IDLE Idle generally refers to idleness, a lack of motion or energy. Idle or ''idling'', may also refer to: Technology * Idle (engine), engine running without load ** Idle speed * Idle (CPU), CPU non-utilisation or low-priority mode ** Synchronous ...

environment using NARR weather data (~ 32 kilometers). Dhungel submitted his PhD dissertation in 2014 where the model was called BATANS (backward averaged two source accelerated numerical solution). The model was first published in ''

Meteorological Applications ''Meteorological Applications'' is a peer-reviewed scientific journal of meteorology published four times per year since 1994. It is published by John Wiley & Sons on behalf of the Royal Meteorological Society. Abstracting and indexing The journ ...

'' journal in 2016 under the name BAITSSS as a framework to interpolate ET between the

satellite A satellite or artificial satellite is an object intentionally placed into orbit in outer space. Except for passive satellites, most satellites have an electricity generation system for equipment on board, such as solar panels or radioiso ...

overpass when thermal based surface temperature is unavailable. The overall concept of backward averaging was introduced to expedite the convergence process of iteratively solved surface energy balance components which can be time-consuming and can frequently suffer non-convergence, especially in low

wind speed In meteorology, wind speed, or wind flow speed, is a fundamental atmospheric quantity caused by air moving from high to low pressure, usually due to changes in temperature. Wind speed is now commonly measured with an anemometer. Wind spee ...

. In 2017, the landscape BAITSSS model was scripted in Python

shell Shell may refer to: Architecture and design * Shell (structure), a thin structure ** Concrete shell, a thin shell of concrete, usually with no interior columns or exterior buttresses ** Thin-shell structure Science Biology * Seashell, a hard o ...

, together with

GDAL The Geospatial Data Abstraction Library (GDAL) is a computer software library for reading and writing raster and vector geospatial data formats (e.g. shapefile), and is released under the permissive X/MIT style free software license by the O ...

and NumPy libraries using NLDAS weather data (~ 12.5 kilometers). The detailed independent model was evaluated against weighing

lysimeter A lysimeter (from Greek λύσις (loosening) and the suffix ''-meter'') is a measuring device which can be used to measure the amount of actual evapotranspiration which is released by plants (usually crops or trees). By recording the amount of p ...

measured ET, infrared temperature (IRT) and

net radiometer A net radiometer is a type of actinometer used to measure net radiation (NR) at the Earth's surface for meteorological applications. The name net radiometer reflects the fact that it measures the difference between downward/incoming and upward/ ...

of drought‐tolerant

corn Maize ( ; ''Zea mays'' subsp. ''mays'', from es, maíz after tnq, mahiz), also known as corn ( North American and Australian English), is a cereal grain first domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 10,000 years ago. ...

and

sorghum ''Sorghum'' () is a genus of about 25 species of flowering plants in the grass family ( Poaceae). Some of these species are grown as cereals for human consumption and some in pastures for animals. One species is grown for grain, while many ot ...

at Conservation and Production Research Laboratory in

Bushland, Texas Bushland is an unincorporated community and census-designated place (CDP) in southwestern Potter County, Texas, United States. A small portion of the CDP extends south into Randall County. According to the Handbook of Texas, the community had a ...

by group of

scientist A scientist is a person who conducts scientific research to advance knowledge in an area of the natural sciences. In classical antiquity, there was no real ancient analog of a modern scientist. Instead, philosophers engaged in the philosophica ...

s from

USDA-ARS The Agricultural Research Service (ARS) is the principal in-house research agency of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). ARS is one of four agencies in USDA's Research, Education and Economics mission area. ARS is charged with ext ...

and

Kansas State University Kansas State University (KSU, Kansas State, or K-State) is a public land-grant research university with its main campus in Manhattan, Kansas, United States. It was opened as the state's land-grant college in 1863 and was the first public insti ...

between 2017 and 2020. Some later development of BAITSSS includes physically based crop productivity components, i.e.

biomass Biomass is plant-based material used as a fuel for heat or electricity production. It can be in the form of wood, wood residues, energy crops, agricultural residues, and waste from industry, farms, and households. Some people use the terms biom ...

and

crop yield In agriculture, the yield is a measurement of the amount of a crop grown, or product such as wool, meat or milk produced, per unit area of land. The seed ratio is another way of calculating yields. Innovations, such as the use of fertilizer, the c ...

computation.

Rationale

The majority of

based instantaneous ET models use evaporative fraction (EF) or reference ET fraction (ETF), similar to crop coefficients, for computing seasonal values, these models generally lack the soil

water balance The law of water balance states that the inflows to any water system or area is equal to its outflows plus change in storage during a time interval. In hydrology, a water balance equation can be used to describe the flow of water in and out of ...

and

Irrigation Irrigation (also referred to as watering) is the practice of applying controlled amounts of water to land to help grow crops, landscape plants, and lawns. Irrigation has been a key aspect of agriculture for over 5,000 years and has been dev ...

components in surface energy balance. Other limiting factors is the dependence on

thermal A thermal column (or thermal) is a rising mass of buoyant air, a convective current in the atmosphere, that transfers heat energy vertically. Thermals are created by the uneven heating of Earth's surface from solar radiation, and are an example ...

-based

radiometric Radiometry is a set of techniques for measuring electromagnetic radiation, including visible light. Radiometric techniques in optics characterize the distribution of the radiation's power in space, as opposed to photometric techniques, which ch ...

surface temperature Surface temperature is the temperature at a surface. Specifically, it may refer to: * Surface air temperature, the temperature of the air near the surface of the earth * Sea surface temperature, the temperature of water close to the ocean's sur ...

, which is not always available at required

temporal resolution Temporal resolution (TR) refers to the discrete resolution of a measurement with respect to time. Physics Often there is a trade-off between the temporal resolution of a measurement and its spatial resolution, due to Heisenberg's uncertainty ...

and frequently obscured by factors such as

cloud cover Cloud cover (also known as cloudiness, cloudage, or cloud amount) refers to the fraction of the sky obscured by clouds on average when observed from a particular location. Okta is the usual unit for measurement of the cloud cover. The cloud c ...

. BAITSSS was developed to fill these gaps in

based models liberating the use of

-based

and to serve as a digital crop water tracker simulating high

temporal Temporal may refer to: Entertainment * Temporal (band), an Australian metal band * ''Temporal'' (Radio Tarifa album), 1997 * ''Temporal'' (Love Spirals Downwards album), 2000 * ''Temporal'' (Isis album), 2012 * ''Temporal'' (video game), a 200 ...

(hourly or sub-hourly) and

spatial resolution In physics and geosciences, the term spatial resolution refers to distance between independent measurements, or the physical dimension that represents a pixel of the image. While in some instruments, like cameras and telescopes, spatial resoluti ...

(30

meter The metre ( British spelling) or meter ( American spelling; see spelling differences) (from the French unit , from the Greek noun , "measure"), symbol m, is the primary unit of length in the International System of Units (SI), though its pr ...

) ET maps. BAITSSS utilizes

based

canopy Canopy may refer to: Plants * Canopy (biology), aboveground portion of plant community or crop (including forests) * Canopy (grape), aboveground portion of grapes Religion and ceremonies * Baldachin or canopy of state, typically placed over an ...

formation information, i.e. estimation of seasonal variation of vegetation indices and

senescence Senescence () or biological aging is the gradual deterioration of functional characteristics in living organisms. The word ''senescence'' can refer to either cellular senescence or to senescence of the whole organism. Organismal senescence inv ...

Approach and model structure

Surface energy balance is one of the commonly utilized approaches to quantify ET (

latent heat Latent heat (also known as latent energy or heat of transformation) is energy released or absorbed, by a body or a thermodynamic system, during a constant-temperature process — usually a first-order phase transition. Latent heat can be underst ...

flux Flux describes any effect that appears to pass or travel (whether it actually moves or not) through a surface or substance. Flux is a concept in applied mathematics and vector calculus which has many applications to physics. For transport ...

in terms of

), where weather variables and vegetation Indices are the drivers of this process. BAITSSS adopts numerous equations to compute surface energy balance and resistances where primarily are from Javis, 1976, Choudhury and Monteith, 1988, and

aerodynamic Aerodynamics, from grc, ἀήρ ''aero'' (air) + grc, δυναμική (dynamics), is the study of the motion of air, particularly when affected by a solid object, such as an airplane wing. It involves topics covered in the field of fluid dyn ...

methods or flux-gradient relationship equations with stability functions associated with

Monin–Obukhov similarity theory Monin–Obukhov (M–O) similarity theory describes the non-dimensionalized mean flow and mean temperature in the surface layer under non-neutral conditions as a function of the dimensionless height parameter, named after Russian scientists A. S. ...

Underlying fundamental equations of surface energy balance

Latent heat flux Latent heat (also known as latent energy or heat of transformation) is energy released or absorbed, by a body or a thermodynamic system, during a constant-temperature process — usually a first-order phase transition. Latent heat can be unders ...

(LE) The

or flux-gradient equations of

latent heat flux Latent heat (also known as latent energy or heat of transformation) is energy released or absorbed, by a body or a thermodynamic system, during a constant-temperature process — usually a first-order phase transition. Latent heat can be unders ...

in BAITSSS are shown below.

e^_c

is saturation

vapor pressure Vapor pressure (or vapour pressure in English-speaking countries other than the US; see spelling differences) or equilibrium vapor pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by a vapor in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed phase ...

at the

and

e^_s

is for soil,

e_a

is ambient

, r is bulk

boundary layer In physics and fluid mechanics, a boundary layer is the thin layer of fluid in the immediate vicinity of a bounding surface formed by the fluid flowing along the surface. The fluid's interaction with the wall induces a no-slip boundary cond ...

resistance of vegetative elements in the canopy, r is

aerodynamic resistance In fluid dynamics, drag (sometimes called air resistance, a type of friction, or fluid resistance, another type of friction or fluid friction) is a force acting opposite to the relative motion of any object moving with respect to a surrounding fl ...

between zero plane displacement (d) +

roughness length Roughness length (z_0) is a parameter of some vertical wind profile equations that model the horizontal mean wind speed near the ground. In the log wind profile, it is equivalent to the height at which the wind speed theoretically becomes zero in ...

of momentum (z) and measurement height (z) of

, r is the aerodynamic resistance between the substrate and canopy height (d +z), and r is soil surface resistance.

LE_ = \frac \bigl(\frac\bigr)\ \And \ LE_ = \frac \bigl(\frac\bigr)

Sensible heat flux Sensible heat is heat exchanged by a body or thermodynamic system in which the exchange of heat changes the temperature of the body or system, and some macroscopic variables of the body or system, but leaves unchanged certain other macroscopic vari ...

(H) and

calculation The flux-gradient equations of

sensible heat flux Sensible heat is heat exchanged by a body or thermodynamic system in which the exchange of heat changes the temperature of the body or system, and some macroscopic variables of the body or system, but leaves unchanged certain other macroscopic vari ...

and surface temperature in BAITSSS are shown below.

H_ =  \bigl(\frac\bigr)\Longleftrightarrow T_ =  \frac +

H_ =  \bigl(\frac\bigr)\Longleftrightarrow T_ =  \frac +

Canopy resistance (r) Typical Jarvis type-equation of r adopted in BAITSSS is shown below, R is the minimum value of r, LAI is leaf area index, f is fraction of

cover, weighting functions representing plant response to

solar radiation Solar irradiance is the power per unit area ( surface power density) received from the Sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range of the measuring instrument. Solar irradiance is measured in watts per square metre ...

(F),

air temperature Atmospheric temperature is a measure of temperature at different levels of the Earth's atmosphere. It is governed by many factors, including incoming solar radiation, humidity and altitude. When discussing surface air temperature, the annual at ...

(F), vapor pressure deficit (F), and

soil moisture Soil moisture is the water content of the soil. It can be expressed in terms of volume or weight. Soil moisture measurement can be based on ''in situ'' probes (e.g., capacitance probes, neutron probes) or remote sensing methods. Water that ent ...

(F) each varying between 0 and 1. Convergence pattern of aerodynamic resistance

r_ = \frac

Equations of soil water balance and irrigation decision

Standard soil water balance equations for soil surface and the root zone are implemented in BAITSSS for each time step, where irrigation decisions are based on the soil moisture at the root zone.

Data

Input

ET models, in general, need information about

vegetation Vegetation is an assemblage of plant species and the ground cover they provide. It is a general term, without specific reference to particular taxa, life forms, structure, spatial extent, or any other specific botanical or geographic charact ...

(physical properties and vegetation indices) and environment condition (weather data) to compute water use. Primary weather data requirements in BAITSSS are

solar irradiance Solar irradiance is the power per unit area ( surface power density) received from the Sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range of the measuring instrument. Solar irradiance is measured in watts per square metr ...

(R),

(u), air temperature (T),

relative humidity Humidity is the concentration of water vapor present in the air. Water vapor, the gaseous state of water, is generally invisible to the human eye. Humidity indicates the likelihood for precipitation, dew, or fog to be present. Humidity dep ...

(RH) or

specific humidity Humidity is the concentration of water vapor present in the air. Water vapor, the gaseous state of water, is generally invisible to the human eye. Humidity indicates the likelihood for precipitation, dew, or fog to be present. Humidity depen ...

(q), and

precipitation In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravitational pull from clouds. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, ice pellets, graupel and hai ...

(P). Vegetation indices requirements in BAITSSS are leaf area index (LAI) and fractional

cover (f), generally estimated from

normalized difference vegetation index The normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) is a simple graphical indicator that can be used to analyze remote sensing measurements, often from a space platform, assessing whether or not the target being observed contains live green vegeta ...

(NDVI).

Automated Automation describes a wide range of technologies that reduce human intervention in processes, namely by predetermining decision criteria, subprocess relationships, and related actions, as well as embodying those predeterminations in machines ...

BAITSSS can compute ET throughout

using

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (abbreviated as NOAA ) is an United States scientific and regulatory agency within the United States Department of Commerce that forecasts weather, monitors oceanic and atmospheric conditi ...

(NOAA) weather data (i.e. hourly NLDAS: North American Land Data Assimilation system at 1/8

degree Degree may refer to: As a unit of measurement * Degree (angle), a unit of angle measurement ** Degree of geographical latitude ** Degree of geographical longitude * Degree symbol (°), a notation used in science, engineering, and mathemati ...

; ~ 12.5 kilometers), Vegetation indices those acquired by

Landsat The Landsat program is the longest-running enterprise for acquisition of satellite imagery of Earth. It is a joint NASA / USGS program. On 23 July 1972, the Earth Resources Technology Satellite was launched. This was eventually renamed to L ...

, and soil information from

SSURGO SSURGO (Soil Survey Geographic database) refers to digital soils data produced and distributed by the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) - National Cartography and Geospatial Center (NCGC) in the United States. The database In compu ...

Output

BAITSSS generates large numbers of variables (fluxes, resistances, and moisture) in gridded form in each time-step. The most commonly used outputs are

evapotranspiration Evapotranspiration (ET) is the combined processes by which water moves from the earth’s surface into the atmosphere. It covers both water evaporation (movement of water to the air directly from soil, canopies, and water bodies) and transpir ...

, evaporation,

transpiration Transpiration is the process of water movement through a plant and its evaporation from aerial parts, such as leaves, stems and flowers. Water is necessary for plants but only a small amount of water taken up by the roots is used for growth ...

, soil moisture,

irrigation Irrigation (also referred to as watering) is the practice of applying controlled amounts of water to land to help grow crops, landscape plants, and lawns. Irrigation has been a key aspect of agriculture for over 5,000 years and has been dev ...

amount, and

maps and

time series In mathematics, a time series is a series of data points indexed (or listed or graphed) in time order. Most commonly, a time series is a sequence taken at successive equally spaced points in time. Thus it is a sequence of discrete-time data. E ...

analysis.

Model features

Agriculture system applications and recognition

BAITSSS was implemented to compute ET in southern

Idaho Idaho ( ) is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the Western United States. To the north, it shares a small portion of the Canada–United States border with the province of British Columbia. It borders the states of Montana and W ...

for 2008, and in northern California for 2010. It was used to calculate

and

ET in

for 2016, and multiple crops in northwest

for 2013–2017. BAITSSS has been widely discussed among the

peers Peers may refer to: People * Donald Peers * Edgar Allison Peers, English academician * Gavin Peers * John Peers, Australian tennis player * Kerry Peers * Mark Peers * Michael Peers * Steve Peers * Teddy Peers (1886–1935), Welsh international fo ...

around the world, including Bhattarai et al. in 2017 and Jones et al. in 2019.

United States Senate Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition and Forestry The Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry is a committee of the United States Senate empowered with legislative oversight of all matters relating to the nation's agriculture industry, farming programs, forestry and logging, and leg ...

listed BAITSSS in its

climate change In common usage, climate change describes global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to ...

report. BAITSSS was also covered by articles in Open Access Government,

science team, Grass & Grain magazine, National Information Management & Support System (NIMSS), terrestrial ecological models, key research contribution related to sensible heat flux estimation and irrigation decision in remote sensing based ET models. In September 2019, the Northwest

Groundwater Management District 4 (GMD 4) along with BAITSSS received national recognition from

American Association for the Advancement of Science The American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) is an American international non-profit organization with the stated goals of promoting cooperation among scientists, defending scientific freedom, encouraging scientific responsi ...

(AAAS).

AAAS AAAS may refer to: * American Academy of Arts and Sciences, a learned society and center for policy research; the publisher of the journal ''Dædalus'' * American Association for the Advancement of Science, an organization that supports scientifi ...

highlighted 18 communities across the U.S. that are responding to

includin
Sheridan County, Kansas
to prolong the life of

Ogallala Aquifer The Ogallala Aquifer () is a shallow water table aquifer surrounded by sand, silt, clay, and gravel located beneath the Great Plains in the United States. One of the world's largest aquifers, it underlies an area of approximately in portio ...

by minimizing water use where this

aquifer An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing, permeable rock, rock fractures, or unconsolidated materials ( gravel, sand, or silt). Groundwater from aquifers can be extracted using a water well. Aquifers vary greatly in their characteri ...

is depleting rapidly due to extensive agricultural practices .

discussed the development and use of intricate ET model BAITSSS and Dhungel's and other

s efforts supporting effective use of water in

Sheridan County, Kansas Sheridan County (standard abbreviation: SD) is a county located in the U.S. state of Kansas. As of the 2020 census, the county population was 2,447. Its county seat is Hoxie. The county was named in honor of Phillip H. Sheridan, a general of ...

. Furthermore, Upper Republican Regional Advisory Committee of

(June 2019) and GMD 4 discussed possible benefit and utilization of BAITSSS for managing water use, educational purpose, and cost-share. A short story about Ogallala Aquifer Conservation effort from Kansas State University and GMD4 using ET model was published in

Mother Earth News ''Mother Earth News'' is a bi-monthly American magazine that has a circulation of 500,520 . It is published in Topeka, Kansas. Since its founding, ''Mother Earth News'' has promoted renewable energy, recycling, family farms, good agricultural ...

(April/May 2020), and Progressive Crop Consultant.

Example application

Groundwater and Irrigation

Dhungel et al., 2020, combined with field crop scientists, systems analysts, and district water managers, applied BAITSSS at the district

water management Water resources are natural resources of water that are potentially useful for humans, for example as a source of drinking water supply or irrigation water. 97% of the water on the Earth is salt water and only three percent is fresh water; sligh ...

level focusing on seasonal ET and annual

groundwater Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth's surface in rock and soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. About 30 percent of all readily available freshwater in the world is groundwater. A unit of rock or an unconsolidat ...

withdrawal rates at

Sheridan Sheridan may refer to: People Surname *Sheridan (surname) *Philip Sheridan (1831–1888), U.S. Army general after whom the Sheridan tank is named *Richard Brinsley Sheridan (1751–1816), Irish playwright (''The Rivals''), poet and politician ...

6 (SD-6) Local Enhanced Management Plan (LEMA) for five years period (2013-2017) in northwest,

. BAITSSS simulated

was compared to reported

as well as to infer

deficit irrigation Deficit irrigation (DI) is a watering strategy that can be applied by different types of irrigation application methods. The correct application of DI requires thorough understanding of the yield response to water (crop sensitivity to drought stress ...

within

water right Water right in water law refers to the right of a user to use water from a water source, e.g., a river, stream, pond or source of groundwater. In areas with plentiful water and few users, such systems are generally not complicated or contentiou ...

management units (WRMU). In

pumping records are

legal Law is a set of rules that are created and are law enforcement, enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior,Robertson, ''Crimes against humanity'', 90. with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. ...

documents and maintained by the Kansas Division of Water Resources. The in-season water supply was compared to BAITSSS simulated ET as well-watered

crop A crop is a plant that can be grown and harvested extensively for profit or subsistence. When the plants of the same kind are cultivated at one place on a large scale, it is called a crop. Most crops are cultivated in agriculture or hydropo ...

condition.

Evapotranspiration
Hysterisis Hysteresis is the dependence of the state of a system on its history. For example, a magnet may have more than one possible magnetic moment in a given magnetic field, depending on how the field changed in the past. Plots of a single component of ...
and
Advection In the field of physics, engineering, and earth sciences, advection is the transport of a substance or quantity by bulk motion of a fluid. The properties of that substance are carried with it. Generally the majority of the advected substance is a ...

A study related to ET uncertainty associated with ET hysteresis (

Vapor pressure Vapor pressure (or vapour pressure in English-speaking countries other than the US; see spelling differences) or equilibrium vapor pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by a vapor in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed phase ...

and net radiation) were conducted using lysimeter,

Eddy covariance The eddy covariance (also known as eddy correlation and eddy flux) is a key atmospheric measurement technique to measure and calculate vertical turbulent fluxes within atmospheric boundary layers. The method analyses high-frequency wind and scal ...

(EC), and BAITSSS model (point-scale) in an advective environment of

. Results indicated that the pattern of hysteresis from BAITSSS closely followed the lysimeter and showed weak hysteresis related to net radiation when compared to EC. However, both lysimeter and BAITSSS showed strong hysteresis related to VPD when compared to EC.

Lettuce Evapotranspiration

A study related to lettuce evapotranspiration was conducted at Yuma, Arizona using BAITSSS between 2016 and 2020, where model simulated ET closely followed twelve eddy covariance sites

Challenges and limitations

Simulation of hourly ET at 30 m spatial resolution for

season A season is a division of the year based on changes in weather, ecology, and the number of daylight hours in a given region. On Earth, seasons are the result of the axial parallelism of Earth's tilted orbit around the Sun. In temperate and po ...

al time scale is computationally challenging and data-intensive. The low

complicates the convergence of surface energy balance components as well. The peer group Pan et al. in 2017 and Dhungel et al., 2019 pointed out the possible difficulty of parameterization and validations of these kinds of resistance based models. The simulated irrigation may vary than that actually applied in field.

References

{{reflist, refs= Peer reviewed papers from Dhungel and others: * {{Cite journal, last1=Dhungel, first1=Ramesh, last2=Allen, first2=Richard G., last3=Trezza, first3=Ricardo, last4=Robison, first4=Clarence W., date=2016, title=Evapotranspiration between satellite overpasses: methodology and case study in agricultural dominant semi-arid areas, journal=Meteorological Applications, language=en, volume=23, issue=4, pages=714–730, bibcode=2016MeApp..23..714D, doi=10.1002/met.1596, issn=1469-8080 , publication-date=October 2016, doi-access=free * {{Cite journal , last1=Dhungel , first1=Ramesh , last2=Aiken , first2=Robert , last3=Colaizzi , first3=Paul , last4=Lin , first4=Xiaomao , last5=Baumhardt , first5=Roland , last6=Brauer , first6=David , last7=Marek , first7=Gary , last8=Evett , first8=Steven , last9=O'Brien , first9=Dan , date=April 11, 2019 , title=Increased bias in evapotranspiration modeling due to weather and vegetation indices data sources , url=https://www.ars.usda.gov/research/publications/publication/?seqNo115=354882 , journal=

Agronomy Journal ''Agronomy Journal'' is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by American Society of Agronomy. The journal publishes articles related to soil science, crop science, agroclimatology and agronomic modeling, production agriculture, and softwar ...

, volume=111 , issue=3 , pages=1407–1424 , doi=10.2134/agronj2018.10.0636 , access-date=2019-04-09 , via=

Agricultural Research Service The Agricultural Research Service (ARS) is the principal in-house research agency of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). ARS is one of four agencies in USDA's Research, Education and Economics mission area. ARS is charged with ex ...

, doi-access=free * {{Cite journal , last1=Dhungel , first1=Ramesh , last2=Aiken , first2=Robert , last3=Colazzi , first3=Paul D. , last4=Lin , first4=Xiaomao , last5=O'Brien , first5=Dan , last6=Baumhardt , first6=Roland Louis , last7=Brauer , first7=David , last8=Marek , first8=Gary W. , last9=Evett , first9=Steve , date=June 3, 2019 , title=Evaluation of the uncalibrated energy balance model (BAITSSS)for estimating evapotranspiration in a semiarid, advective climate , url=https://www.ars.usda.gov/research/publications/publication/?seqNo115=348805 , journal=Hydrological Processes , volume=33 , issue=15 , page= , doi=10.1002/hyp.13458 , bibcode=2019HyPr...33.2110D , s2cid=146551438 , access-date=2019-04-09 , via=

* {{Cite journal, last1=Dhungel, first1=Ramesh, last2=Aiken, first2=Robert, last3=Lin, first3=Xiaomao, last4=Kenyon, first4=Shannon, last5=Colaizzi, first5=Paul D., last6=Luhman, first6=Ray, last7=Baumhardt, first7=R. Louis, last8=O’Brien, first8=Dan, last9=Kutikoff, first9=Seth, last10=Brauer, first10=David K., date=October 21, 2019 , title=Restricted water allocations: Landscape-scale energy balance simulations and adjustments in agricultural water applications, url=https://www.ars.usda.gov/research/publications/publication/?seqNo115=365507, journal=Agricultural Water Management, volume=227, pages=105854, doi=10.1016/j.agwat.2019.105854, access-date=2019-10-23 , via=

, doi-access=free * {{Cite journal, last1=Dhungel, first1=Ramesh, last2=Allen, first2=Richard G., last3=Trezza, first3=Ricardo, date=2016-06-09, title=Improving iterative surface energy balance convergence for remote sensing based flux calculation, journal=

Journal of Applied Remote Sensing The ''Journal of Applied Remote Sensing'' is a peer-reviewed open access scientific journal published by SPIE. It covers all aspects of remote sensing and was established in 2007. The editor-in-chief is Ni-Bin Chang (University of Central Florida). ...

, language=en, volume=10, issue=2, pages=026033, doi=10.1117/1.JRS.10.026033, bibcode=2016JARS...10b6033D, s2cid=124338728, issn=1931-3195 * {{Cite journal, last1=Dhungel, first1=Ramesh, last2=Aiken, first2=Rob, last3=Lin, first3=Xiaomao, last4=Kutikoff, first4=Seth, last5=Zuo, first5=Guanqiang, year=2019, title=B31L-2467 - An integrated analytic framework for water and crop production in agroecosystems, url=https://agu.confex.com/agu/fm19/meetingapp.cgi/Paper/499126, journal=

AGU Fall Meeting The American Geophysical Union (AGU) is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization of Earth, atmospheric, ocean, hydrologic, space, and planetary scientists and enthusiasts that according to their website includes 130,000 people (not members). AGU's act ...

, publisher=

American Geophysical Union The American Geophysical Union (AGU) is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization of Earth, atmospheric, ocean, hydrologic, space, and planetary scientists and enthusiasts that according to their website includes 130,000 people (not members). AGU's ...

*{{Cite journal, last1=Dhungel, first1=Ramesh, last2=Aiken, first2=Robert, last3=Evett, first3=Steven R., last4=Colaizzi, first4=Paul D., last5=Marek, first5=Gary, last6=Moorhead, first6=Jerry E., last7=Baumhardt, first7=R. Louis, last8=Brauer, first8=David, last9=Kutikoff, first9=Seth, last10=Lin, first10=Xiaomao, date=2020-12-14, title=Energy Imbalance and Evapotranspiration Hysteresis under an Advective Environment: Evidence from Lysimeter, Eddy Covariance, and Energy Balance Modelling, url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2020GL091203, journal=Geophysical Research Letters, volume=48, language=en, doi=10.1029/2020GL091203, s2cid=230594532, issn=0094-8276 Kansas GMD 4 meeting minutes: * {{Cite web, url=https://www.gmd4.org/BoardMeetings/19-08-Minutes.pdf, title=Minutes: Northwest Kansas Groundwater Management District 4 August 08, 2019 Board Meeting, last=, first=, date=, website=, url-status=live, archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108165155/https://www.gmd4.org/BoardMeetings/18-11-Minutes.pdf , archive-date=2019-11-08 , access-date= * {{Cite web, url=https://www.gmd4.org/BoardMeetings/19-06-Minutes.pdf, title=Minutes: Northwest Kansas Groundwater Management District 4 June 13, 2019 Board Meeting, last=, first=, date=, website=, url-status=live, archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108165155/https://www.gmd4.org/BoardMeetings/18-11-Minutes.pdf , archive-date=2019-11-08 , access-date= * {{Cite web, url=https://www.gmd4.org/BoardMeetings/19-01-Minutes.pdf, title=Minutes: Northwest Kansas Groundwater Management District 4 January 10, 2019 Board Meeting, last=, first=, date=, website=, access-date= * {{Cite web, url=https://www.gmd4.org/BoardMeetings/18-11-Minutes.pdf, title=Minutes Northwest Kansas Groundwater Management District 4 November 1, 2018 Board Meeting, last=, first=, date=, website=, url-status=live, archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108165155/https://www.gmd4.org/BoardMeetings/18-11-Minutes.pdf , archive-date=2019-11-08 , access-date= .{{Cite journal , url=https://scisoc.confex.com/scisoc/2018am/meetingapp.cgi/Paper/113852 , title=Next Generation Landscape Evapotranspiration Tools: Is It Feasible?. , website=ASA, CSSA, and SSSA - ASA, CSSA, and CSA International Annual Meeting , date=6 November 2018 , access-date=2019-05-11 Discussion among peers: * {{Cite journal , last1=Bhattarai , first1=Nishan , last2=Wagle , first2=Pradeep , last3=Gowda , first3=Prasanna H. , last4=Kakani , first4=Vijaya G. , date=2017 , title=Utility of remote sensing-based surface energy balance models to track water stress in rain-fed switchgrass under dry and wet conditions , journal=ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing , language=en , volume=133 , pages=128–141 , bibcode=2017JPRS..133..128B , doi=10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2017.10.010, doi-access=free * {{Cite journal, last1=Jones, first1=Andrew S., last2=Andales, first2=Allan A., last3=Chávez, first3=José L., last4=McGovern, first4=Cullen, last5=Smith, first5=Garvey E. B., last6=David, first6=Olaf, last7=Fletcher, first7=Steven J., title=Use of Predictive Weather Uncertainties in an Irrigation Scheduling Tool Part I: A Review of Metrics and Adjoint Methods, journal=JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association, language=en, doi=10.1111/1752-1688.12810, issn=1752-1688, year=2019, volume=56, issue=2, pages=187–200, doi-access=free * {{Cite journal , last1=Jin , first1=Yufang , last2=He , first2=Ruyan , last3=Marino , first3=Giulia , last4=Whiting , first4=Michael , last5=Kent , first5=Eric , last6=Sanden , first6=Blake L. , last7=Culumber , first7=Mae , last8=Ferguson , first8=Louise , last9=Little , first9=Cayle , last10=Grattan , first10=Stephen , last11=Paw U , first11=Kyaw Tha , date=2018-11-15 , title=Spatially variable evapotranspiration over salt affected pistachio orchards analyzed with satellite remote sensing estimates , journal=Agricultural and Forest Meteorology , volume=262 , pages=178–191 , doi=10.1016/j.agrformet.2018.07.004 , bibcode=2018AgFM..262..178J , issn=0168-1923, doi-access=free * {{Cite journal , last1=Majozi , first1=Nobuhle , last2=Mannaerts , first2=Chris , last3=Ramoelo , first3=Abel , last4=Mathieu , first4=Renaud , last5=Mudau , first5=Azwitamisi , last6=Verhoef , first6=Wouter , date=2017-03-24 , title=An Intercomparison of Satellite-Based Daily Evapotranspiration Estimates under Different Eco-Climatic Regions in South Africa , journal=Remote Sensing , language=en , volume=9 , issue=4 , pages=307 , doi=10.3390/rs9040307 , bibcode=2017RemS....9..307M , issn=2072-4292, doi-access=free * {{Cite journal , last1=Pagán , first1=Brianna , last2=Maes , first2=Wouter , last3=Gentine , first3=Pierre , last4=Martens , first4=Brecht , last5=Miralles , first5=Diego , date=2019-02-18 , title=Exploring the Potential of Satellite Solar-Induced Fluorescence to Constrain Global Transpiration Estimates , journal=Remote Sensing , language=en , volume=11 , issue=4 , pages=413 , doi=10.3390/rs11040413 , bibcode=2019RemS...11..413P , issn=2072-4292, doi-access=free * {{Cite journal, last1=Khand, first1=Kul, last2=Taghvaeian, first2=Saleh, last3=Gowda, first3=Prasanna, last4=Paul, first4=George, date=2019-03-02, title=A Modeling Framework for Deriving Daily Time Series of Evapotranspiration Maps Using a Surface Energy Balance Model, journal=Remote Sensing, volume=11, issue=5, pages=508, doi=10.3390/rs11050508, bibcode=2019RemS...11..508K, issn=2072-4292, doi-access=free * {{Cite journal, last1=Numata, first1=Izaya, last2=Khand, first2=Kul, last3=Kjaersgaard, first3=Jeppe, last4=Cochrane, first4=Mark, last5=Silva, first5=Sonaira, date=2017-01-06, title=Evaluation of Landsat-Based METRIC Modeling to Provide High-Spatial Resolution Evapotranspiration Estimates for Amazonian Forests, journal=Remote Sensing, volume=9, issue=1, pages=46, doi=10.3390/rs9010046, bibcode=2017RemS....9...46N, issn=2072-4292, doi-access=free * {{Cite journal, last=Khand, first=Kul Bikram, date=2019-05-01, title=Assessment and Development of Remotely Sensed Evapotranspiration Modeling Approaches, url=https://shareok.org/handle/11244/321595, language=en-US * {{Cite journal, last1=Akhtar, first1=Fazlullah, last2=Awan, first2=Usman, last3=Tischbein, first3=Bernhard, last4=Liaqat, first4=Umar, date=2018-06-18, title=Assessment of Irrigation Performance in Large River Basins under Data Scarce Environment—A Case of Kabul River Basin, Afghanistan, journal=Remote Sensing, language=en, volume=10, issue=6, pages=972, doi=10.3390/rs10060972, bibcode=2018RemS...10..972A, issn=2072-4292, doi-access=free * {{Cite journal, last1=He, first1=Ruyan, last2=Jin, first2=Yufang, last3=Kandelous, first3=Maziar, last4=Zaccaria, first4=Daniele, last5=Sanden, first5=Blake, last6=Snyder, first6=Richard, last7=Jiang, first7=Jinbao, last8=Hopmans, first8=Jan, date=2017-05-05, title=Evapotranspiration Estimate over an Almond Orchard Using Landsat Satellite Observations, journal=Remote Sensing, volume=9, issue=5, pages=436, doi=10.3390/rs9050436, bibcode=2017RemS....9..436H, issn=2072-4292, doi-access=free

External links

BAITSSS
at Sites.google.com Hydrology models Irrigation Computer-aided engineering software Remote sensing Water resources management Numerical climate and weather models