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''Arthrospira'' and ''Limnospira'' are two genera of free-floating filamentous
cyanobacteria Cyanobacteria ( ) are a group of autotrophic gram-negative bacteria that can obtain biological energy via oxygenic photosynthesis. The name "cyanobacteria" () refers to their bluish green (cyan) color, which forms the basis of cyanobacteri ...
characterized by
cylindrical A cylinder () has traditionally been a Solid geometry, three-dimensional solid, one of the most basic of curvilinear geometric shapes. In elementary geometry, it is considered a Prism (geometry), prism with a circle as its base. A cylinder may ...
, multicellular
trichome Trichomes (; ) are fine outgrowths or appendages on plants, algae, lichens, and certain protists. They are of diverse structure and function. Examples are hairs, glandular hairs, scales, and papillae. A covering of any kind of hair on a plant ...
s in an open left-hand
helix A helix (; ) is a shape like a cylindrical coil spring or the thread of a machine screw. It is a type of smooth space curve with tangent lines at a constant angle to a fixed axis. Helices are important in biology, as the DNA molecule is for ...
. A
dietary supplement A dietary supplement is a manufactured product intended to supplement a person's diet by taking a pill (pharmacy), pill, capsule (pharmacy), capsule, tablet (pharmacy), tablet, powder, or liquid. A supplement can provide nutrients eithe ...
is made from ''L. platensis'' and ''L. maxima'', known as spirulina. The two species species were commonly treated as if they are in the genus ''Spirulina'' since 1932, even though they were originally proposed in ''Arthorospira'' in 1892 and 1917. The distinction was restored in the late 20th century. Although the introduction of the two separate genera ''Arthrospira'' and ''Spirulina'' is now generally accepted, there has been much dispute in the past and the resulting taxonomical confusion is tremendous. To add to the problem, it was shown in 2019 that the
type species In International_Code_of_Zoological_Nomenclature, zoological nomenclature, a type species (''species typica'') is the species name with which the name of a genus or subgenus is considered to be permanently taxonomically associated, i.e., the spe ...
for ''Arthrospira'', ''A. jenneri'', was very distantly related to the species used in food production. This necessitated the creation of yet another genus, ''Limnospira'', to hold these economically-important species.


Taxonomy

The common name, spirulina, refers to the dried biomass of ''
Arthrospira platensis ''Arthrospira'' and ''Limnospira'' are two genera of free-floating filamentous cyanobacteria characterized by cylindrical, multicellular trichomes in an open left-hand helix. A dietary supplement is made from ''L. platensis'' and ''L. maxima ...
'' (now ''L. platensis''), a type of
Cyanobacteria Cyanobacteria ( ) are a group of autotrophic gram-negative bacteria that can obtain biological energy via oxygenic photosynthesis. The name "cyanobacteria" () refers to their bluish green (cyan) color, which forms the basis of cyanobacteri ...
, which are oxygenic (produce oxygen)
photosynthetic Photosynthesis ( ) is a Biological system, system of biological processes by which Photoautotrophism, photosynthetic organisms, such as most plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, convert light energy, typically from sunlight, into the chemical ener ...
bacteria. These photosynthetic organisms were first considered to be algae, a very large and diverse group of
eukaryotic The eukaryotes ( ) constitute the Domain (biology), domain of Eukaryota or Eukarya, organisms whose Cell (biology), cells have a membrane-bound cell nucleus, nucleus. All animals, plants, Fungus, fungi, seaweeds, and many unicellular organisms ...
organisms, until 1962 when they were reclassified as
prokaryotes A prokaryote (; less commonly spelled procaryote) is a single-celled organism whose cell lacks a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. The word ''prokaryote'' comes from the Ancient Greek (), meaning 'before', and (), meaning 'nut' ...
and named Cyanobacteria. This designation was accepted and published in 1974 by '' Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology''. Scientifically, quite a distinction exists between the ''Spirulina'' and ''Arthrospira'' genera. Stizenberger, in 1852, gave the name ''Arthrospira'' based on the presence of septa, its helical form, and its multicellular structure, and Gomont, in 1892, confirmed the aseptate form of the genus ''Spirulina''. Geitler in 1932 reunified both members designating them as ''Spirulina'' without considering the septum. Research on
microalgae Microalgae or microphytes are microscopic scale, microscopic algae invisible to the naked eye. They are phytoplankton typically found in freshwater and marine life, marine systems, living in both the water column and sediment. They are unicellul ...
was carried out in the name of ''Spirulina'', but the original species used to produce the dietary supplement spirulina belongs to the genus ''Arthrospira''. This misnomer has been difficult to correct. As of 2010, taxonomy states that the name spirulina for strains which are used as
food supplement A dietary supplement is a manufactured product intended to supplement a person's diet by taking a pill, capsule, tablet, powder, or liquid. A supplement can provide nutrients either extracted from food sources, or that are synthetic ( ...
s is inappropriate, and agreement exists that ''Arthrospira'' is a distinct genus, consisting of over 30 different species, including ''A. platensis'' and ''A. maxima''. A 2019 analysis of ''Arthrospira'' species using 16S rRNA gene sequence suggests that the type species of this genus (''A. jenneri'') is much closer to ''
Planktothrix ''Planktothrix'' is a diverse genus of filamentous cyanobacteria observed to amass in algal blooms in water ecosystems across the globe. Like all Oscillatoriales, ''Planktothrix'' species have no heterocyst, heterocysts and no akinetes. ''Plankto ...
''
clade In biology, a clade (), also known as a Monophyly, monophyletic group or natural group, is a group of organisms that is composed of a common ancestor and all of its descendants. Clades are the fundamental unit of cladistics, a modern approach t ...
than previously thought. It also lacks characteristics of mass produced species (such as preference of alkaline habitats). As a result, researchers proposed a new genus closer to '' Limnoraphis'' and '' Neolyngbya'' called ''Limnospira'' comprising '' L. fusiformis'', '' L. maxima'' and '' L. indica''. A further 2024 study confirmed that ''L. platensis'' should be in this genus, but also found that ''L. fusiformis'' and ''L. indica'' are insufficiently different from ''L. maxima'' to be their own species.


Morphology

The genus ''Arthrospira'' comprises helical
trichomes Trichomes (; ) are fine outgrowths or appendages on plants, algae, lichens, and certain protists. They are of diverse structure and function. Examples are hairs, glandular hairs, scales, and papillae. A covering of any kind of hair on a plant ...
of varying size and with various degrees of coiling, including tightly-coiled morphology to a straight form. The helical parameters of the shape of ''Arthrospira'' is used to differentiate between and even within the same species. These differences may be induced by changing environmental conditions, such as temperature. The helical shape of the trichomes is only maintained in a liquid environment. The filaments are solitary and reproduce by
binary fission Binary may refer to: Science and technology Mathematics * Binary number, a representation of numbers using only two values (0 and 1) for each digit * Binary function, a function that takes two arguments * Binary operation, a mathematical o ...
, and the cells of the trichomes vary in length from 2 to 12 μm and can sometimes reach 16 μm.


Biochemical composition

''Limnospira'' is very rich in
protein Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residue (biochemistry), residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including Enzyme catalysis, catalysing metab ...
s, and constitute 53 to 68 percent by dry weight of the contents of the cell. Its protein harbours all
essential amino acids An essential amino acid, or indispensable amino acid, is an amino acid that cannot be synthesized from scratch by the organism fast enough to supply its demand, and must therefore come from the diet. Of the 21 amino acids common to all life forms ...
. ''Limnospira'' also contain high amounts of
polyunsaturated fatty acid In biochemistry and nutrition, a polyunsaturated fat is a fat that contains a polyunsaturated fatty acid (abbreviated PUFA), which is a subclass of fatty acid characterized by a backbone with two or more carbon–carbon double bonds. Some polyunsa ...
s (PUFAs), about 1.5–2 percent, and a total lipid content of 5–6 percent. These PUFAs contain the γ-linolenic acid (GLA), an
omega-6 fatty acid Omega−6 fatty acids (also referred to as ω−6 fatty acids or ''n''−6 fatty acids) are a family of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) that share a final carbon-carbon double bond in the ''n''−6 position, that is, the sixth bond, counti ...
. Further contents of ''Limnospira'' include vitamins, minerals and
photosynthetic pigments A photosynthetic pigment (accessory pigment; chloroplast pigment; antenna pigment) is a pigment that is present in chloroplasts or photosynthetic bacteria and captures the light energy necessary for photosynthesis. List of photosynthetic pigmen ...
.


Occurrence

Species of the genera ''Arthrospira'' and ''Limnospira'' have been isolated from alkaline
brackish Brackish water, sometimes termed brack water, is water occurring in a natural environment that has more salinity than freshwater, but not as much as seawater. It may result from mixing seawater (salt water) and fresh water together, as in estuari ...
and saline waters in tropical and subtropical regions. Among the various species included in the genus, ''L. platensis'' is the most widely distributed and is mainly found in Africa, but also in Asia. ''L. maxima'' is believed to be found in California and Mexico. ''L. platensis'' and ''L. maxima'' occur naturally in tropical and subtropical lakes with alkaline pH and high concentrations of
carbonate A carbonate is a salt of carbonic acid, (), characterized by the presence of the carbonate ion, a polyatomic ion with the formula . The word "carbonate" may also refer to a carbonate ester, an organic compound containing the carbonate group ...
and
bicarbonate In inorganic chemistry, bicarbonate (IUPAC-recommended nomenclature: hydrogencarbonate) is an intermediate form in the deprotonation of carbonic acid. It is a polyatomic anion with the chemical formula . Bicarbonate serves a crucial bioche ...
. ''L. platensis'' occurs in Africa, Asia and South America, whereas ''L. maxima'' is confined to Central America. ''A. pacifica'' (name not found in
LPSN List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN) is an online database that maintains information on the naming and taxonomy image:Hierarchical clustering diagram.png, 280px, Generalized scheme of taxonomy Taxonomy is a practi ...
) is endemic to the Hawaiian islands. Most cultivated spirulina is produced in open-channel raceway ponds, with paddle-wheels used to agitate the water. The largest commercial producers of spirulina are located in the United States, Thailand, India, Taiwan, China, Pakistan, Myanmar, Greece and Chile.


Present and future uses

Spirulina is widely known as a
food supplement A dietary supplement is a manufactured product intended to supplement a person's diet by taking a pill, capsule, tablet, powder, or liquid. A supplement can provide nutrients either extracted from food sources, or that are synthetic ( ...
, but there are other possible uses for this cyanobacterium. As an example, it is suggested to be used medically for patients for whom it is difficult to chew or swallow food, or as a natural and cheap drug delivery system. Further, promising results in the treatment of certain cancers, allergies and anemia, as well as hepatotoxicity and vascular diseases were found. Spirulina may also be used as a healthy addition to animal feed if the price of its production can be further reduced Spirulina can be used in technical applications, such as the biosynthesis of
silver nanoparticle Silver nanoparticles are nanoparticles of silver of between 1 nm and 100 nm in size. While frequently described as being 'silver' some are composed of a large percentage of silver oxide due to their large ratio of surface science, surf ...
s, which allows the formation of metallic silver in an environmentally friendly way. In the creation of textiles it harbors some advantages, since it can be used for the production of antimicrobial textiles and paper or polymer materials. They also may have an antioxidant effect and may maintain the ecological balance in aquatic bodies and reduces various stresses in the aquatic environment.


Cropping systems

Growth of ''L. platensis'' depends on several factors. To achieve maximum output, factors such as the temperature, light and
photoinhibition Photoinhibition is light-induced reduction in the photosynthetic capacity of a plant, alga, or cyanobacterium. Photosystem II (PSII) is more sensitive to light than the rest of the photosynthetic machinery, and most researchers define the term as ...
, nutrients and carbon dioxide level, need to be adjusted. In summer the main limiting factor of spirulina growth is light. When growing in water depths of 12–15 cm, self-shading governs the growth of the individual cell. However, research has shown, that growth is also photoinhibited, and can be increased through shading. The level of photoinhibition versus the lack of light is always a question of cell concentration in the medium. The optimal growth temperature for ''L. platensis'' is 35–38 Â°C. This poses a major limiting factor outside the tropics, confining growth to the summer months. ''L. platensis'' has been grown in fresh water, as well as in brackish water and sea water. Apart from mineral fertilizer, various sources such as waste effluents, and effluents from fertilizer, starch and noodle factories have been used as a nutrient source. Waste effluents are more readily available in rural locations, allowing small scale production. One of the major hurdles for large scale production is the complicated harvesting process which accounts for 20–30% of the total production costs. Due to their small cell size, and diluted cultures (mass concentration less than 1 g/L) with densities close to that of water microalgae, they are difficult to separate from their growing medium.


Cultivation systems


Open pond

Open pond systems are the most common way to grow ''L. platensis'' due to their comparatively low cost. Typically, channels are built in form of a raceway from concrete or PVC coated earth walls, and water is moved by paddle wheels. The open design, however allows contamination by foreign algae and/or microorganisms. Another problem includes water loss due to evaporation. Both of these problems can be addressed by covering the channels with transparent
polyethylene Polyethylene or polythene (abbreviated PE; IUPAC name polyethene or poly(methylene)) is the most commonly produced plastic. It is a polymer, primarily used for packaging (plastic bags, plastic films, geomembranes and containers including bott ...
film.


Closed system

Closed systems have the advantage of being able to control the physical, chemical and biological environment. This allows for increased yield, and more control of the nutrient level. Typical forms such as tubes or polyethylene bags, also offer a larger surface-to-volume ratios than open pond systems, thus increasing the amount of sunlight available for photosynthesis. These closed systems help expanding the growing period into the winter months, but often lead to overheating in summer.


Market potentials and feasibility

Cultivation of ''Limnospira'' has occurred for a long period of time, especially in Mexico and around Lake Chad on the African continent. During the 21st century however, its beneficial properties were rediscovered and therefore studies about ''Limnospira'' and its production increased. In the past decades, large-scale production of the cyanobacterium developed. Japan started in 1960, and in the following years Mexico and several other countries over all continents, such as China, India, Thailand, Myanmar and the United States started to produce on large-scale. In little time, China has become the largest producer worldwide. A particular advantage of the production and use of spirulina is that its production can be conducted at a number of different scales, from household culture to intensive commercial production over large areas. Especially as a small-scale crop, ''Limnospira'' still has considerable potential for development, for example for nutritional improvement. New countries where this could happen, should dispose of alkaline-rich ponds on high altitudes or saline-alkaline-rich groundwater or coastal areas with high temperature. Otherwise, technical inputs needed for new spirulina farms are quite basic. The international market of spirulina is divided into two target groups: the one includes NGO’s and institutions focusing on malnutrition and the other includes health conscious people. There are still some countries, especially in Africa, that produce at a local level. Those could respond to the international demand by increasing production and
economies of scale In microeconomics, economies of scale are the cost advantages that enterprises obtain due to their scale of operation, and are typically measured by the amount of Productivity, output produced per unit of cost (production cost). A decrease in ...
. Growing the product in Africa could offer an advantage in price, due to low costs of labour. On the other hand, African countries would have to surpass quality standards from importing countries, which could again result in higher costs.


Phylogeny

As of 2025, the only sequenced species is ''Limnospira platensis''. As a result the GTDB does not produce an informative tree. Existing sources generally use a single locus, usually 16S rRNA, ITS, or the
phycocyanin Phycocyanin is a pigment-protein complex from the light-harvesting phycobiliprotein family, along with allophycocyanin and phycoerythrin. It is an accessory pigment to chlorophyll. All phycobiliproteins are water-soluble, so they cannot exist ...
operon ''cpcBA''. 16S rRNA tree, trimmed to show important genera (1800 bp fragment from Nowicka-Krawczyk et al. 2019):


References


External links

* * {{Taxonbar, from=Q987596, from2=Q98815276 Cyanobacteria genera Oscillatoriales