
Arminianism is a movement of
Protestantism
Protestantism is a branch of Christianity that emphasizes Justification (theology), justification of sinners Sola fide, through faith alone, the teaching that Salvation in Christianity, salvation comes by unmerited Grace in Christianity, divin ...
initiated in the early 17th century, based on the
theological
Theology is the study of religious belief from a religious perspective, with a focus on the nature of divinity. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of an ...
ideas of the
Dutch Reformed
The Dutch Reformed Church (, , abbreviated NHK ) was the largest Christian denomination in the Netherlands from the onset of the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century until 1930. It was the traditional denomination of the Dutch royal fami ...
theologian
Jacobus Arminius
Jacobus Arminius (; Dutch language, Dutch: ''Jakob Hermanszoon'' ; 10 October 1560 – 19 October 1609) was a Dutch Reformed Christianity, Reformed minister and Christian theology, theologian during the Protestant Reformation period whose views ...
and his historic supporters known as
Remonstrants
The Remonstrants (or the Remonstrant Brotherhood) is a Protestant movement that split from the Dutch Reformed Church in the early 17th century. The early Remonstrants supported Jacobus Arminius, and after his death, continued to maintain his or ...
. Dutch Arminianism was originally articulated in the ''
Remonstrance'' (1610), a theological statement submitted to the
States General of the Netherlands
The States General of the Netherlands ( ) is the Parliamentary sovereignty, supreme Bicameralism, bicameral legislature of the Netherlands consisting of the Senate (Netherlands), Senate () and the House of Representatives (Netherlands), House of R ...
. This expressed an attempt to moderate the doctrines of
Calvinism
Reformed Christianity, also called Calvinism, is a major branch of Protestantism that began during the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. In the modern day, it is largely represented by the Continental Reformed Christian, Presbyteri ...
related to its interpretation of
predestination
Predestination, in theology, is the doctrine that all events have been willed by God, usually with reference to the eventual fate of the individual soul. Explanations of predestination often seek to address the paradox of free will, whereby Go ...
.
Classical Arminianism, to which Arminius is the main contributor, and
Wesleyan Arminianism
Wesleyan theology, otherwise known as Wesleyan–Arminianism, Arminian theology, or Methodist theology, is a Christian theology, theological tradition in Protestant Christianity based upon the Christian ministry, ministry of the 18th-century eva ...
, to which
John Wesley
John Wesley ( ; 2 March 1791) was an English cleric, Christian theology, theologian, and Evangelism, evangelist who was a principal leader of a Christian revival, revival movement within the Church of England known as Methodism. The societies ...
is the main contributor, are the two main schools of thought. Central Arminian beliefs are that God's
prevenient grace
Prevenient grace (or preceding grace or enabling grace) is a Christian theological concept that refers to the grace of God in a person's life which precedes and prepares to conversion. The concept was first developed by Augustine of Hippo (354 ...
, which prepares
regeneration, is universal and that His grace, allowing regeneration and ongoing
sanctification
Sacred describes something that is dedicated or set apart for the service or worship of a deity; is considered worthy of spiritual respect or devotion; or inspires awe or reverence among believers. The property is often ascribed to objects ( ...
, is resistible.
Many
Christian denomination
A Christian denomination is a distinct Religion, religious body within Christianity that comprises all Church (congregation), church congregations of the same kind, identifiable by traits such as a name, particular history, organization, leadersh ...
s have been influenced by Arminian views, notably the
Baptists
Baptists are a Christian denomination, denomination within Protestant Christianity distinguished by baptizing only professing Christian believers (believer's baptism) and doing so by complete Immersion baptism, immersion. Baptist churches ge ...
in the 17th century, the
Methodists in the 18th century, and the
Pentecostals
Pentecostalism or classical Pentecostalism is a movement within the broader Evangelical wing of Protestant Christianity that emphasizes direct personal experience of God through baptism with the Holy Spirit. The term ''Pentecostal'' is derived ...
in the 20th century.
History
Precursor movements and theological influences
Arminius' beliefs, i.e. Arminianism, did not begin with him. Before the
Reformation
The Reformation, also known as the Protestant Reformation or the European Reformation, was a time of major Theology, theological movement in Western Christianity in 16th-century Europe that posed a religious and political challenge to the p ...
, groups like the
Waldensians
The Waldensians, also known as Waldenses (), Vallenses, Valdesi, or Vaudois, are adherents of a church tradition that began as an ascetic movement within Western Christianity before the Reformation. Originally known as the Poor of Lyon in the l ...
similarly affirmed individual freedom over any
predetermined
Determinism is the metaphysical view that all events within the universe (or multiverse) can occur only in one possible way. Deterministic theories throughout the history of philosophy have developed from diverse and sometimes overlapping mot ...
predestination
Predestination, in theology, is the doctrine that all events have been willed by God, usually with reference to the eventual fate of the individual soul. Explanations of predestination often seek to address the paradox of free will, whereby Go ...
.
Anabaptist
Anabaptism (from Neo-Latin , from the Greek language, Greek : 're-' and 'baptism'; , earlier also )Since the middle of the 20th century, the German-speaking world no longer uses the term (translation: "Re-baptizers"), considering it biased. ...
theologian
Balthasar Hubmaier
Balthasar Hubmaier (1480 – 10 March 1528) was an influential German Anabaptist leader. He was one of the most well-known and respected Anabaptist theologians of the Reformation.
Early life and education
He was born in Friedberg, Bavaria, in ...
(1480–1528) also promoted much the same view as Arminius nearly a century before him. The
soteriological
Soteriology (; ' "salvation" from σωτήρ ' "savior, preserver" and λόγος ' "study" or "word") is the study of religious doctrines of salvation. Salvation theory occupies a place of special significance in many religions. In the academic ...
doctrines of Arminianism and Anabaptism are roughly equivalent. In particular,
Mennonites
Mennonites are a group of Anabaptism, Anabaptist Christianity, Christian communities tracing their roots to the epoch of the Radical Reformation. The name ''Mennonites'' is derived from the cleric Menno Simons (1496–1561) of Friesland, part of ...
have been historically Arminian whether they distinctly espoused the Arminian viewpoint or not, and rejected
Calvinist
Reformed Christianity, also called Calvinism, is a major branch of Protestantism that began during the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. In the modern day, it is largely represented by the Continental Reformed Protestantism, Continenta ...
soteriology
Soteriology (; ' "salvation" from wikt:σωτήρ, σωτήρ ' "savior, preserver" and wikt:λόγος, λόγος ' "study" or "word") is the study of Doctrine, religious doctrines of salvation. Salvation theory occupies a place of special sign ...
.
Anabaptist theology
Anabaptist theology, also known as Anabaptist doctrine, is a theological tradition reflecting the doctrine of the Anabaptist Churches. The major branches of Anabaptist Christianity (inclusive of Mennonites, Amish, Hutterites, Bruderhof, Schwarze ...
seems to have influenced Jacobus Arminius. At least, he was "sympathetic to the Anabaptist point of view, and Anabaptists were commonly in attendance on his preaching." Similarly, Arminius mentions
Danish Lutheran
Lutheranism is a major branch of Protestantism that emerged under the work of Martin Luther, the 16th-century German friar and Protestant Reformers, reformer whose efforts to reform the theology and practices of the Catholic Church launched ...
theologian
Niels Hemmingsen
Niels Hemmingsen (May/June 1513 – 23 May 1600), Latinized Nicolaus Hemmingius, was a Danish Lutheran theologian. He was pastor of the Church of the Holy Ghost, Copenhagen and professor at the University of Copenhagen. The street Niels Hemmin ...
(1513–1600) as holding the basic view of soteriology he held and he may have been influenced by Hemmingsen. Another key figure,
Sebastian Castellio
Sebastian Castellio (also Sébastien Châteillon, Châtaillon, Castellión, and Castello; 1515 – 29 December 1563) was a French preacher and theologian; and one of the first Reformed Christian proponents of religious toleration, freedom of ...
(1515–1563), who opposed Calvin's views on predestination and
religious intolerance
Religious intolerance or religious bigotry is intolerance of another's religious beliefs, practices, faith or lack thereof.
Statements which are contrary to one's religious beliefs do not constitute intolerance. Religious intolerance, rather, ...
, is known to have influenced both the Mennonites and certain theologians within Arminius's circle. Early critics of Arminians even cited Castellio as a primary inspiration behind the Arminian movement.
Emergence of Arminianism
Jacobus Arminius
Jacobus Arminius (; Dutch language, Dutch: ''Jakob Hermanszoon'' ; 10 October 1560 – 19 October 1609) was a Dutch Reformed Christianity, Reformed minister and Christian theology, theologian during the Protestant Reformation period whose views ...
(1560–1609) was a Dutch pastor and theologian. He was taught by
Theodore Beza
Theodore Beza (; or ''de Besze''; 24 June 1519 – 13 October 1605) was a French Calvinist Protestant theologian, reformer and scholar who played an important role in the Protestant Reformation. He was a disciple of John Calvin and lived most ...
,
Calvin's hand-picked successor, but after examination of the scriptures, he rejected his teacher's theology that it is God who
unconditionally elects some for
salvation
Salvation (from Latin: ''salvatio'', from ''salva'', 'safe, saved') is the state of being saved or protected from harm or a dire situation. In religion and theology, ''salvation'' generally refers to the deliverance of the soul from sin and its c ...
. Instead Arminius proposed that the
election
An election is a formal group decision-making process whereby a population chooses an individual or multiple individuals to hold Public administration, public office.
Elections have been the usual mechanism by which modern representative d ...
of God was ''of believers'', thereby making it
conditional on faith. Arminius's views were challenged by the Dutch Calvinists, especially
Franciscus Gomarus
Franciscus Gomarus (François Gomaer; 30 January 1563 – 11 January 1641) was a Dutch theologian, a strict Calvinist and an opponent of the teaching of Jacobus Arminius (and his followers), whose theological disputes were addressed at the Synod ...
.
In his ''Declaration of Sentiments'' (1608) Arminius presented his theology to magistrates of the
States General of the Netherlands
The States General of the Netherlands ( ) is the Parliamentary sovereignty, supreme Bicameralism, bicameral legislature of the Netherlands consisting of the Senate (Netherlands), Senate () and the House of Representatives (Netherlands), House of R ...
in The Hague. After his death, Arminius's followers continued to advance his theological vision, crafting the ''
Five articles of Remonstrance
5 (five) is a number, numeral and digit. It is the natural number, and cardinal number, following 4 and preceding 6, and is a prime number.
Humans, and many other animals, have 5 digits on their limbs.
Mathematics
5 is a Fermat pri ...
'' (1610), in which they express their points of divergence from the stricter Calvinism of the ''
Belgic Confession
The ''Confession of Faith'', popularly known as the Belgic Confession, is a confession to which many Reformed churches subscribe as a doctrinal standard. The Confession forms part of the Three Forms of Unity, which are the official subordinate st ...
''. This is how Arminius's followers were called
Remonstrants
The Remonstrants (or the Remonstrant Brotherhood) is a Protestant movement that split from the Dutch Reformed Church in the early 17th century. The early Remonstrants supported Jacobus Arminius, and after his death, continued to maintain his or ...
, and following a ''
Counter Remonstrance'' in 1611, Gomarus' followers were called Counter-Remonstrants.
After some political maneuvering, the Dutch Calvinists were able to convince
Prince Maurice of Nassau
Maurice of Orange (; 14 November 1567 – 23 April 1625) was ''stadtholder'' of all the provinces of the Dutch Republic except for Friesland from 1585 at the earliest until his death on 23 April 1625. Before he became Prince of Orange upon ...
to deal with the situation. Maurice systematically removed Arminian magistrates from office and called a national synod at
Dordrecht
Dordrecht (), historically known in English as Dordt (still colloquially used in Dutch, ) or Dort, is a List of cities in the Netherlands by province, city and List of municipalities of the Netherlands, municipality in the Western Netherlands, lo ...
. This
Synod of Dort
The Synod of Dort (also known as the Synod of Dordt or the Synod of Dordrecht) was a European transnational Synod held in Dordrecht in 1618–1619, by the Dutch Reformed Church, to settle a divisive controversy caused by the rise of Arminianism. ...
was open primarily to Dutch Calvinists (102 people), while the Arminians were excluded (13 people banned from voting), with Calvinist representatives from other countries (28 people), and in 1618 published a condemnation of Arminius and his followers as heretics. The
Canons of Dort
The Canons of Dort, or Canons of Dordrecht, formally titled ''The Decision of the Synod of Dort on the Five Main Points of Doctrine in Dispute in the Netherlands'', is an exposition of orthodox Reformed soteriology against Arminianism, by the Nat ...
responded, among other topics, to Arminian doctrines, anticipating their later articulation as the
Five points of Calvinism.
Arminians across Holland were removed from office, imprisoned, banished, and sworn to silence. Twelve years later, Holland officially granted Arminianism protection as a religion, although animosity between Arminians and Calvinists continued. Most of the early Remonstrants followed a classical version of Arminianism. However, some of them such as
Philipp van Limborch, moved in the direction of
semi-Pelagianism
Semi-Pelagianism (or Semipelagianism) is a historical Christian theological and soteriological school of thought about the role of free will in salvation. In semipelagian thought, a distinction is made between the beginning of faith and the incre ...
and
rationalism
In philosophy, rationalism is the Epistemology, epistemological view that "regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge" or "the position that reason has precedence over other ways of acquiring knowledge", often in contrast to ot ...
.
Arminianism in the Church of England
In England, the so-labelled Arminian doctrines were held, in substance, before and in parallel with those of Arminius. The
Thirty-nine Articles of Religion (finalised in 1571), were sufficiently ambiguous that they were compatible with either Arminian or Calvinistic interpretations. Arminianism in the
Church of England
The Church of England (C of E) is the State religion#State churches, established List of Christian denominations, Christian church in England and the Crown Dependencies. It is the mother church of the Anglicanism, Anglican Christian tradition, ...
was fundamentally an expression of negation of Calvinism, and only some theologians held to
classical Arminianism, but for the rest they were either
semi-Pelagian or
Pelagian
Pelagianism is a Christian theological position that holds that the fall did not taint human nature and that humans by divine grace have free will to achieve human perfection. Pelagius (), an ascetic and philosopher from the British Isles, ta ...
. In this specific context, contemporary historians prefer to use the term "proto-Arminians" rather than "Arminians" to designate the leanings of those divines who generally didn't follow classical Arminianism. English Arminianism was represented by Arminian
Puritans
The Puritans were English Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries who sought to rid the Church of England of what they considered to be Roman Catholic practices, maintaining that the Church of England had not been fully reformed and should b ...
such as
John Goodwin John Goodwin may refer to:
Politicians
* John Goodwin (Parliamentarian) (1603–1674), Member of Parliament for Reigate
*John B. Goodwin (1850–1921), Mayor of Atlanta, Georgia in the late 1880s
* John Noble Goodwin (1824–1887), 1st Governor of ...
or
High Anglican
A ''high church'' is a Christian Church whose beliefs and practices of Christian ecclesiology, liturgy, and theology emphasize "ritual, priestly authority, ndsacraments," and a standard liturgy. Although used in connection with various Christian ...
Arminians such as
Jeremy Taylor
Jeremy Taylor (1613–1667) was a cleric in the Church of England who achieved fame as an author during the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell. He is sometimes known as the "Shakespeare of Divines" for his poetic style of expression, and he is fr ...
and
Henry Hammond
Henry Hammond (18 August 1605 – 25 April 1660) was an English churchman, church historian and theologian, who supported the Royalist cause during the English Civil War.
Early life
He was born at Chertsey in Surrey on 18 August 1605, the y ...
. Anglican Arminians of the 17th century such as
William Laud
William Laud (; 7 October 1573 – 10 January 1645) was a bishop in the Church of England. Appointed Archbishop of Canterbury by Charles I of England, Charles I in 1633, Laud was a key advocate of Caroline era#Religion, Charles I's religious re ...
fought Calvinist Puritans. They actually saw Arminianism in terms of a
state church, an idea that was alien to the views of Arminius. This position became particularly evident under the reign (1625–1649) of
Charles I of England
Charles I (19 November 1600 – 30 January 1649) was King of Kingdom of England, England, Kingdom of Scotland, Scotland, and Kingdom of Ireland, Ireland from 27 March 1625 until Execution of Charles I, his execution in 1649.
Charles was born ...
. Following the
English Civil War
The English Civil War or Great Rebellion was a series of civil wars and political machinations between Cavaliers, Royalists and Roundhead, Parliamentarians in the Kingdom of England from 1642 to 1651. Part of the wider 1639 to 1653 Wars of th ...
(1642–1651)
Charles II of England
Charles II (29 May 1630 – 6 February 1685) was King of Scotland from 1649 until 1651 and King of England, Scotland, and King of Ireland, Ireland from the 1660 Restoration of the monarchy until his death in 1685.
Charles II was the eldest su ...
, who tolerated the
Presbyterians
Presbyterianism is a historically Reformed Protestant tradition named for its form of church government by representative assemblies of elders, known as "presbyters". Though other Reformed churches are structurally similar, the word ''Pr ...
, re-instituted Arminian thought in the Church of England. It was dominant there after the
Restoration (1660)
The Stuart Restoration was the reinstatement in May 1660 of the Stuart monarchy in England, Scotland, and Ireland. It replaced the Commonwealth of England, established in January 1649 after the execution of Charles I, with his son Char ...
for some fifty years.
Baptists
The Baptist movement emerged in 17th-century in England. The first Baptists—called "
General Baptists
General Baptists, also called Arminian Baptists, are Baptists that hold to the doctrine of general atonement (belief that Jesus Christ died for all humanity and not only for the elect). General Baptist soteriology initially was not Arminian, bu ...
" because of their confession of a "general" or unlimited atonement—were Arminians. The Baptist movement originated with
Thomas Helwys
Thomas Helwys (c. 1575 – 1616) was an English barrister (lawyer), Puritan leader, and theologian. His theological beliefs is one of the forming basis of the Baptist tradition. In the early 17th century, Helwys was the principal formulator of ...
, who left his mentor John Smyth (who had moved into shared belief and other distinctives of the Dutch
Waterland
Waterland () is a List of municipalities of the Netherlands, municipality in the Netherlands, in the Provinces of the Netherlands, province of North Holland. It is situated north of Amsterdam, on the western shore of the Markermeer. It includes t ...
er Mennonites of Amsterdam) and returned to London to start the first English Baptist Church in 1611. Later General Baptists such as
John Griffith, Samuel Loveday, and
Thomas Grantham defended a Reformed Arminian theology that reflected the Arminianism of Arminius. The General Baptists encapsulated their Arminian views in numerous
confessions, the most influential of which was the
Standard Confession of 1660. In the 1640s the
Particular Baptists were formed, diverging from Arminian doctrine and embracing the strong Calvinism of the Presbyterians and
Independents. Their robust Calvinism was publicized in such confessions as the
London Baptist Confession of 1644 and the Second London Confession of 1689. The London Confession of 1689 was later used by Calvinistic Baptists in America (called the Philadelphia Baptist Confession), whereas the Standard Confession of 1660 was used by the American heirs of the English General Baptists, who soon came to be known as
Free Will Baptists
Free Will Baptists or Free Baptists are a group originating from General Baptists that emphasizes the teaching of free salvation and free will. The movement can be traced back to the General Baptists in 17th century England.
In 1702, Paul Palm ...
.
Methodists
In the
Methodist
Methodism, also called the Methodist movement, is a Protestant Christianity, Christian Christian tradition, tradition whose origins, doctrine and practice derive from the life and teachings of John Wesley. George Whitefield and John's brother ...
-Calvinist controversy of the early 1770s involving
Anglican
Anglicanism, also known as Episcopalianism in some countries, is a Western Christianity, Western Christian tradition which developed from the practices, liturgy, and identity of the Church of England following the English Reformation, in the ...
ministers
John Wesley
John Wesley ( ; 2 March 1791) was an English cleric, Christian theology, theologian, and Evangelism, evangelist who was a principal leader of a Christian revival, revival movement within the Church of England known as Methodism. The societies ...
and
George Whitefield
George Whitefield (; 30 September 1770), also known as George Whitfield, was an English Anglican minister and preacher who was one of the founders of Methodism and the evangelical movement. Born in Gloucester, he matriculated at Pembroke Coll ...
, Wesley responded to accusations of
semi-Pelagianism
Semi-Pelagianism (or Semipelagianism) is a historical Christian theological and soteriological school of thought about the role of free will in salvation. In semipelagian thought, a distinction is made between the beginning of faith and the incre ...
by embracing an Arminian identity. Wesley had limited familiarity with the beliefs of
Arminius
Arminius (; 18/17 BC–AD 21) was a chieftain of the Germanic peoples, Germanic Cherusci tribe who is best known for commanding an alliance of Germanic tribes at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in AD 9, in which three Roman legions under th ...
and largely formulated his views without direct reliance on Arminius' teachings. Wesley was notably influenced by 17th-century
English Arminianism and by some Remonstrant spokesmen. However, he is recognized as a faithful representative of Arminius' beliefs. Wesley defended his
soteriology
Soteriology (; ' "salvation" from wikt:σωτήρ, σωτήρ ' "savior, preserver" and wikt:λόγος, λόγος ' "study" or "word") is the study of Doctrine, religious doctrines of salvation. Salvation theory occupies a place of special sign ...
through the publication of a periodical titled ''
The Arminian'' (1778) and in articles such as ''Predestination Calmly Considered''. To support his stance, he strongly maintained belief in
total depravity
Total depravity (also called radical corruption or pervasive depravity) is a Protestant theological doctrine derived from the concept of original sin
Original sin () in Christian theology refers to the condition of sinfulness that all h ...
while clarifying other doctrines notably
prevenient grace
Prevenient grace (or preceding grace or enabling grace) is a Christian theological concept that refers to the grace of God in a person's life which precedes and prepares to conversion. The concept was first developed by Augustine of Hippo (354 ...
. At the same time, Wesley attacked the
determinism
Determinism is the Metaphysics, metaphysical view that all events within the universe (or multiverse) can occur only in one possible way. Deterministic theories throughout the history of philosophy have developed from diverse and sometimes ov ...
that he claimed characterized Calvinist doctrines of predestination. He typically preached the notion of
Christian perfection
Within many denominations of Christianity, Christian perfection is the theological concept of the process or the event of achieving spiritual maturity or perfection. The ultimate goal of this process is union with God characterized by pure lov ...
(fully mature, not "sinlessness"). His system of thought has become known as
Wesleyan Arminianism
Wesleyan theology, otherwise known as Wesleyan–Arminianism, Arminian theology, or Methodist theology, is a Christian theology, theological tradition in Protestant Christianity based upon the Christian ministry, ministry of the 18th-century eva ...
, the foundations of which were laid by him and his fellow preacher
John William Fletcher
John William Fletcher (born Jean Guillaume de la Fléchère; 12 September 1729 – 14 August 1785) was a Swiss-born English Anglican divine, divine and Methodist leader. Of French Huguenot stock, he was born in Nyon in Vaud, Switzerland. Fletch ...
. Methodism also navigated its own theological intricacies concerning salvation and human agency. In the 1830s, during the
Second Great Awakening
The Second Great Awakening was a Protestant religious revival during the late 18th to early 19th century in the United States. It spread religion through revivals and emotional preaching and sparked a number of reform movements. Revivals were a k ...
, traces of
Pelagian
Pelagianism is a Christian theological position that holds that the fall did not taint human nature and that humans by divine grace have free will to achieve human perfection. Pelagius (), an ascetic and philosopher from the British Isles, ta ...
influence surfaced in the
American Holiness Movement
The Holiness movement is a Christian movement that emerged chiefly within 19th-century Methodism, and to a lesser extent influenced other traditions such as Quakerism, Anabaptism, and Restorationism. Churches aligned with the holiness movement ...
. Consequently, critics of
Wesleyan theology
Wesleyan theology, otherwise known as Wesleyan–Arminian theology, or Methodist theology, is a theological tradition in Protestant Christianity based upon the ministry of the 18th-century evangelical reformer brothers John Wesley and Charles ...
have occasionally unfairly perceived or labeled its broader thought. However, its core is recognized to be Arminianism.
Pentecostals
Pentecostalism
Pentecostalism or classical Pentecostalism is a movement within the broader Evangelical wing of Protestantism, Protestant Christianity that emphasizes direct personal experience of God in Christianity, God through Baptism with the Holy Spirit#Cl ...
has its background in the activity of
Charles Parham
Charles is a masculine given name predominantly found in English and French speaking countries. It is from the French form ''Charles'' of the Proto-Germanic name (in runic alphabet) or ''*karilaz'' (in Latin alphabet), whose meaning was ...
(1873–1929). Its origin as a movement was in the
Azusa Street Revival
The Azusa Street Revival was a historic series of revival meetings that took place in Los Angeles, California. It was led by William J. Seymour, an African-American preacher. The revival began on April 9, 1906, and continued until roughly 191 ...
in Los Angeles in 1906. This revival was led by
William J. Seymour
William Joseph Seymour (May 2, 1870 – September 28, 1922) was a Holiness Pentecostal preacher who initiated the Azusa Street Revival, an influential event in the rise of the Pentecostal and Charismatic movements, particularly Holiness Pentec ...
(1870–1922). Due to the Methodist and
Holiness
Sacred describes something that is dedicated or set apart for the service or worship of a deity; is considered worthy of spiritual respect or devotion; or inspires awe or reverence among believers. The property is often ascribed to objects ( ...
background of many early Pentecostal preachers, the Pentecostal churches usually possessed practices that arose from the Wesleyan Arminianism. During the 20th century, as Pentecostal churches began to settle and incorporate more standard forms, they started to formulate theology that was fully Arminian. Today, Pentecostal denominations such as the
Assemblies of God
The World Assemblies of God Fellowship (WAGF), commonly known as the Assemblies of God (AG), is a global cooperative body or communion of over 170 Pentecostal denominations that was established on August 15, 1989. The WAGF was created to provi ...
hold to Arminian views such as
resistible grace
Prevenient grace (or preceding grace or enabling grace) is a Christian theology, Christian theological concept that refers to the Grace in Christianity, grace of God in a person's life which precedes and prepares to conversion. The concept was f ...
,
conditional election
In Christian theology, conditional election is the belief that God chooses for eternal salvation those whom he foresees will have faith in Christ. This belief emphasizes the importance of a person's free will
Free will is generally underst ...
, and
conditional security of the believer.
Current landscape
Protestant denominations
Advocates of Arminianism find a home in many Protestant denominations, and sometimes other beliefs such as Calvinism exist within the same denomination. The
Lutheran
Lutheranism is a major branch of Protestantism that emerged under the work of Martin Luther, the 16th-century German friar and Protestant Reformers, reformer whose efforts to reform the theology and practices of the Catholic Church launched ...
theological tradition bears certain similarities to Arminianism and there may be some Lutheran churches that are open to it. Newer
Evangelical Anglican
Evangelical Anglicanism or Evangelical Episcopalianism is a tradition or church party within Anglicanism that shares affinity with broader evangelicalism. Evangelical Anglicans share with other evangelicals the attributes of "conversionism, a ...
denominations also show a level of openness to Arminian theology.
Anabaptist
Anabaptism (from Neo-Latin , from the Greek language, Greek : 're-' and 'baptism'; , earlier also )Since the middle of the 20th century, the German-speaking world no longer uses the term (translation: "Re-baptizers"), considering it biased. ...
denominations, such as the
Mennonites
Mennonites are a group of Anabaptism, Anabaptist Christianity, Christian communities tracing their roots to the epoch of the Radical Reformation. The name ''Mennonites'' is derived from the cleric Menno Simons (1496–1561) of Friesland, part of ...
,
Hutterites
Hutterites (; ), also called Hutterian Brethren (German: ), are a communal ethnoreligious group, ethnoreligious branch of Anabaptism, Anabaptists, who, like the Amish and Mennonites, trace their roots to the Radical Reformation of the early 16 ...
,
Amish
The Amish (, also or ; ; ), formally the Old Order Amish, are a group of traditionalist Anabaptism, Anabaptist Christianity, Christian Christian denomination, church fellowships with Swiss people, Swiss and Alsace, Alsatian origins. As they ...
and
Schwarzenau Brethren
The Schwarzenau Brethren, the German Baptist Brethren, Dunkers, Dunkard Brethren, Tunkers, or sometimes simply called the German Baptists, are an Anabaptist group that dissented from Roman Catholic, Lutheran and Reformed European state churches ...
, adhere to
Anabaptist theology
Anabaptist theology, also known as Anabaptist doctrine, is a theological tradition reflecting the doctrine of the Anabaptist Churches. The major branches of Anabaptist Christianity (inclusive of Mennonites, Amish, Hutterites, Bruderhof, Schwarze ...
, which espouses a soteriology that is similar to Arminianism "in some respects". Arminianism is found within the
General Baptist
General Baptists, also called Arminian Baptists, are Baptists that hold to the doctrine of general atonement (belief that Jesus Christ died for all humanity and not only for the elect). General Baptist soteriology initially was not Arminian, bu ...
s, including the subset of General Baptists known as
Free Will Baptist
Free Will Baptists or Free Baptists are a group originating from General Baptists that emphasizes the teaching of free salvation and free will. The movement can be traced back to the General Baptists in 17th century England.
In 1702, Paul Palm ...
s. The majority of
Southern Baptists
The Southern Baptist Convention (SBC), alternatively the Great Commission Baptists (GCB), is a Christian denomination based in the United States. It is the world's largest Baptist organization, the largest Protestant, and the second-largest Ch ...
embrace a
traditionalist form of Arminianism which includes a belief in
eternal security
Eternal security, also known as "once saved, always saved" is the belief providing Christianity, Christian believers with absolute Assurance (theology), assurance of their final Salvation in Christianity, salvation. Its development, particularly wi ...
, though many see Calvinism as growing in acceptance. Certain proponents of Arminianism may be found within the
Restoration movement
The Restoration Movement (also known as the American Restoration Movement or the Stone–Campbell Movement, and pejoratively as Campbellism) is a Christian movement that began on the American frontier during the Second Great Awakening (1790–1 ...
in the
Christian Churches and Churches of Christ
The group of churches known as the Christian Churches and Churches of Christ is a fellowship of congregations within the Restoration Movement (also known as the Stone–Campbell Movement and the Reformation of the 19th Century) that have no form ...
. Additionally, it is found in the
Seventh-day Adventist Church
The Seventh-day Adventist Church (SDA) is an Adventist Protestant Christian denomination which is distinguished by its observance of Saturday, the seventh day of the week in the Christian (Gregorian) and the Hebrew calendar, as the Sa ...
. Arminianism (specifically
Wesleyan–Arminian theology) is taught in the
Methodist
Methodism, also called the Methodist movement, is a Protestant Christianity, Christian Christian tradition, tradition whose origins, doctrine and practice derive from the life and teachings of John Wesley. George Whitefield and John's brother ...
churches, inclusive of those denominations aligned with the
holiness movement
The Holiness movement is a Christianity, Christian movement that emerged chiefly within 19th-century Methodism, and to a lesser extent influenced other traditions such as Quakers, Quakerism, Anabaptism, and Restorationism. Churches aligned with ...
such as the
Evangelical Methodist Church
The Evangelical Methodist Church (EMC) is a Christian denomination in the Wesleyan-Holiness tradition headquartered in Indianapolis, Indiana. The denomination reported 399 churches in the United States, Mexico, Burma/Myanmar, Canada, Philippine ...
,
Church of the Nazarene
The Church of the Nazarene is an evangelical Christian denomination that emerged in North America from the Wesleyan-Holiness movement within Methodism during the late 19th century.
The denomination has its headquarters in Lenexa, Kansas. and it ...
, the
Free Methodist Church
The Free Methodist Church (FMC) is a Methodist Christian denomination within the holiness movement, based in the United States. It is Evangelicalism, evangelical in nature and is Wesleyan theology, Wesleyan–Arminian in theology.
The Free Met ...
, the
Wesleyan Church
The Wesleyan Church, also known as the Wesleyan Methodist Church or Wesleyan Holiness Church depending on the region, is a United States-based Christian denomination headquartered in Fishers, Indiana, with congregations across North America, th ...
, and
the Salvation Army
The Salvation Army (TSA) is a Protestantism, Protestant Christian church and an international charitable organisation headquartered in London, England. It is aligned with the Wesleyan-Holiness movement. The organisation reports a worldwide m ...
. It is also found in a part of the
Charismatics, including the
Pentecostals
Pentecostalism or classical Pentecostalism is a movement within the broader Evangelical wing of Protestant Christianity that emphasizes direct personal experience of God through baptism with the Holy Spirit. The term ''Pentecostal'' is derived ...
.
Scholarly support
Arminian theology has found support among theologians, Bible scholars, and apologists spanning various historical periods and theological circles. Noteworthy historical figures include
Jacobus Arminius
Jacobus Arminius (; Dutch language, Dutch: ''Jakob Hermanszoon'' ; 10 October 1560 – 19 October 1609) was a Dutch Reformed Christianity, Reformed minister and Christian theology, theologian during the Protestant Reformation period whose views ...
,
Simon Episcopius
Simon Episcopius (8 January 1583 – 4 April 1643) was a Dutch theologian and Remonstrant who played a significant role at the Synod of Dort in 1618. His name is the Latinized form of his Dutch name Simon Bisschop.
Life
Born in Amsterdam, in 16 ...
,
Hugo Grotius
Hugo Grotius ( ; 10 April 1583 – 28 August 1645), also known as Hugo de Groot () or Huig de Groot (), was a Dutch humanist, diplomat, lawyer, theologian, jurist, statesman, poet and playwright. A teenage prodigy, he was born in Delft an ...
,
John Goodwin John Goodwin may refer to:
Politicians
* John Goodwin (Parliamentarian) (1603–1674), Member of Parliament for Reigate
*John B. Goodwin (1850–1921), Mayor of Atlanta, Georgia in the late 1880s
* John Noble Goodwin (1824–1887), 1st Governor of ...
,
Thomas Grantham,
John Wesley
John Wesley ( ; 2 March 1791) was an English cleric, Christian theology, theologian, and Evangelism, evangelist who was a principal leader of a Christian revival, revival movement within the Church of England known as Methodism. The societies ...
,
Richard Watson,
Thomas Osmond Summers,
John Miley
John Miley (December 25, 1813 – December 13, 1895) was an American Methodist Episcopal minister and theologian, who was one of the major Methodist theological voices of the 19th century.
Biography Early life
Miley was born December 25, 1813 ...
,
William Burt Pope and
Henry Orton Wiley Henry Orton Wiley (11 November 1877 – 22 August 1961) was a Christian theologian primarily associated with the followers of John Wesley who are part of the Holiness movement. A member of the Church of the Nazarene, his "magnum opus" was the three ...
.
In contemporary Baptist traditions, advocates of Arminian theology include
Roger E. Olson
Roger Eugene Olson (born 1952) is an American theologian and Professor of Christian Theology of Ethics at Baylor University.
Biography Personal life
Olson was born on February 2, 1952, in Des Moines, Iowa. He is married and he and his wife ha ...
, F. Leroy Forlines, Robert Picirilli and J. Matthew Pinson. Within the Methodist tradition, prominent supporters encompass
Thomas Oden
Thomas Clark Oden (1931–2016) was an American Methodist theologian and religious author. He is often regarded as the father of the paleo-orthodox theological movement and is considered to be one of the most influential theologians of the 20th ...
,
Ben Witherington III
Ben Witherington III (born December 30, 1951) is an American Wesleyan-Arminian New Testament scholar. Witherington is Professor of New Testament Interpretation at Asbury Theological Seminary, a Wesleyan-Holiness seminary in Wilmore, Kentucky, ...
,
David Pawson
John David Pawson (25 February 1930 – 21 May 2020) was an English evangelical minister, writer and prominent Bible teacher.
Biography
According to his autobiography, Pawson's immediate ancestors were all farmers, Methodist preachers or b ...
,
B. J. Oropeza, Thomas H. McCall and Fred Sanders. The Holiness movement boasts theologians like Carl O. Bangs and
J. Kenneth Grider. Furthermore, scholars such as Keith D. Stanglin,
Craig S. Keener
Craig S. Keener (born July 4, 1960) is an American Wesleyan theologian, Biblical scholar and professor of New Testament at Asbury Theological Seminary.
Biography Early life
Keener was born on 4 July 1960.
Education
He studied at Central Bible ...
and
Grant R. Osborne also support Arminian perspectives.
Theology
Theological legacy
The Pelagian-Augustinian framework can serve as a key paradigm for understanding Arminianism's theological and historical legacy. Before
Augustine
Augustine of Hippo ( , ; ; 13 November 354 – 28 August 430) was a theologian and philosopher of Berber origin and the bishop of Hippo Regius in Numidia, Roman North Africa. His writings deeply influenced the development of Western philosop ...
(354–430), the
synergistic
Synergy is an interaction or cooperation giving rise to a whole that is greater than the simple sum of its parts (i.e., a non-linear addition of force, energy, or effect). The term ''synergy'' comes from the Attic Greek word συνεργία ' f ...
view of salvation was almost universally endorsed.
Pelagius
Pelagius (; c. 354–418) was a British (Celtic Britons, Brittonic) theologian known for promoting a system of doctrines (termed Pelagianism by his opponents) which emphasized human choice in salvation and denied original sin. Pelagius was accus ...
(c. 354–418), however, argued that humans could perfectly obey God by their own will. The
Pelagian
Pelagianism is a Christian theological position that holds that the fall did not taint human nature and that humans by divine grace have free will to achieve human perfection. Pelagius (), an ascetic and philosopher from the British Isles, ta ...
view is therefore referred to as "humanistic
monergism
In Christian theology, monergism primarily denotes the belief that God alone is the agent of human salvation. Divine monergism is most commonly associated with Augustinian, Lutheran and Reformed soteriology, the latter of which includes certain ...
". This view was condemned at the
Council of Carthage
The Councils of Carthage were church synods held during the 3rd, 4th, and 5th centuries in the city of Carthage in Africa. The most important of these are described below.
Synod of 251
In May 251 a synod, assembled under the presidency of Cyprian ...
(418) and
Ephesus
Ephesus (; ; ; may ultimately derive from ) was an Ancient Greece, ancient Greek city on the coast of Ionia, in present-day Selçuk in İzmir Province, Turkey. It was built in the 10th century BC on the site of Apasa, the former Arzawan capital ...
(431). In response, Augustine proposed a view in which God is the ultimate cause of all human actions, a stance that aligns with
soft determinism
Compatibilism is the belief that free will and determinism are mutually compatible and that it is possible to believe in both without being logically inconsistent. As Steven Weinberg puts it: "I would say that free will is nothing but our consci ...
. The
Augustinian view is therefore referred to as "divine monergism". However,
Augustinian soteriology
Augustinian soteriology refers to Augustine of Hippo's (354–430) view on human Salvation in Christianity, salvation and Divine providence, God's providence. His thinking was shaped by early encounters with Stoicism, Neoplatonism, and Manichaeism ...
implied
double predestination
Predestination, in theology, is the doctrine that all events have been willed by God, usually with reference to the eventual fate of the individual soul. Explanations of predestination often seek to address the paradox of free will, whereby Go ...
, which was condemned by the
Council of Arles
Arles (ancient Arelate) in the south of Roman Gaul (modern France) hosted several councils or synods referred to as ''Concilium Arelatense'' in the history of the early Christian church.
Council of Arles in 314
The first council of Arles"Arles, S ...
(475).
During this period, a moderate form of Pelagianism emerged, later termed
Semi-Pelagianism
Semi-Pelagianism (or Semipelagianism) is a historical Christian theological and soteriological school of thought about the role of free will in salvation. In semipelagian thought, a distinction is made between the beginning of faith and the incre ...
. This view asserted that
human will
Will, within philosophy, is a faculty of the mind. Will is important as one of the parts of the mind, along with reason and understanding. It is considered central to the field of ethics because of its role in enabling deliberate action.
A recurri ...
initiates salvation, rather than divine
grace
Grace may refer to:
Places United States
* Grace, Idaho, a city
* Grace (CTA station), Chicago Transit Authority's Howard Line, Illinois
* Little Goose Creek (Kentucky), location of Grace post office
* Grace, Carroll County, Missouri, an uni ...
. The Semi-Pelagian view is therefore described as "human-initiated
synergism
In Christian theology, synergism refers to the cooperative effort between God and humanity in the process of Salvation in Christianity, salvation. Before Augustine of Hippo (354–430), synergism was almost universally endorsed. Later, it came to ...
". In 529, the
Second Council of Orange
The Second Council of Orange (or Second Synod of Orange) was held in 529 at Orange (''civitas Arausicae''), which was then part of the Ostrogothic Kingdom. It affirmed much of the theology of Augustine of Hippo and synergism, and made numerous pro ...
addressed Semi-Pelagianism and declared that even the inception of faith is a result of God's grace. This highlights the role of
prevenient grace
Prevenient grace (or preceding grace or enabling grace) is a Christian theological concept that refers to the grace of God in a person's life which precedes and prepares to conversion. The concept was first developed by Augustine of Hippo (354 ...
enabling human belief. This view, often referred to as "Semi-Augustinian," is therefore described as "God-initiated synergism". The council also rejected
predestination
Predestination, in theology, is the doctrine that all events have been willed by God, usually with reference to the eventual fate of the individual soul. Explanations of predestination often seek to address the paradox of free will, whereby Go ...
to
evil
Evil, as a concept, is usually defined as profoundly immoral behavior, and it is related to acts that cause unnecessary pain and suffering to others.
Evil is commonly seen as the opposite, or sometimes absence, of good. It can be an extreme ...
. As Arminianism aligns with key aspects of this view, some see it as a return to
early Church
Early Christianity, otherwise called the Early Church or Paleo-Christianity, describes the historical era of the Christian religion up to the First Council of Nicaea in 325. Christianity spread from the Levant, across the Roman Empire, and bey ...
theological consensus. Moreover, Arminianism can also be seen as a soteriological diversification of Calvinism or, more specifically, as a theological middle ground between Calvinism and semi-Pelagianism.
Arminian theology generally divides into two main variations: Classical Arminianism, based on the teachings of Jacobus Arminius, and Wesleyan Arminianism, a closely related variation shaped primarily by John Wesley.
Classical Arminianism
Definition and terminology

Classical Arminianism is a Protestant theological view, that asserts God's
prevenient grace
Prevenient grace (or preceding grace or enabling grace) is a Christian theological concept that refers to the grace of God in a person's life which precedes and prepares to conversion. The concept was first developed by Augustine of Hippo (354 ...
for
regeneration is universal and that the grace allowing regeneration and ongoing
sanctification
Sacred describes something that is dedicated or set apart for the service or worship of a deity; is considered worthy of spiritual respect or devotion; or inspires awe or reverence among believers. The property is often ascribed to objects ( ...
is resistible. This theological system was presented by Jacobus Arminius and maintained by some of the Remonstrants, such as
Simon Episcopius
Simon Episcopius (8 January 1583 – 4 April 1643) was a Dutch theologian and Remonstrant who played a significant role at the Synod of Dort in 1618. His name is the Latinized form of his Dutch name Simon Bisschop.
Life
Born in Amsterdam, in 16 ...
and
Hugo Grotius
Hugo Grotius ( ; 10 April 1583 – 28 August 1645), also known as Hugo de Groot () or Huig de Groot (), was a Dutch humanist, diplomat, lawyer, theologian, jurist, statesman, poet and playwright. A teenage prodigy, he was born in Delft an ...
.
Arminian theology incorporates the language and framework of
covenant theology
Covenant theology (also known as covenantalism, federal theology, or federalism) is a biblical theology, a conceptual overview and interpretive framework for understanding the overall structure of the Bible. It is often distinguished from dis ...
. Its core teachings are summarized in the ''
Five Articles of Remonstrance
5 (five) is a number, numeral and digit. It is the natural number, and cardinal number, following 4 and preceding 6, and is a prime number.
Humans, and many other animals, have 5 digits on their limbs.
Mathematics
5 is a Fermat pri ...
'', reflecting Arminius's views, with some sections directly from his ''Declaration of Sentiments''. Some theologians have referred to this system as "classical Arminianism". Others prefer "Reformation Arminianism" or "Reformed Arminianism", as Arminius upheld the principles of
Reformation
The Reformation, also known as the Protestant Reformation or the European Reformation, was a time of major Theology, theological movement in Western Christianity in 16th-century Europe that posed a religious and political challenge to the p ...
such as ''
Sola fide
(or simply ), meaning justification by faith alone, is a soteriological doctrine in Christian theology commonly held to distinguish the Lutheranism, Lutheran and Reformed tradition, Reformed traditions of Protestantism, among others, from th ...
'' and ''
Sola gratia
''Sola gratia'', meaning by grace alone, is one of the five ''solae'' and consists in the belief that salvation comes by divine grace or "unmerited favor" only, not as something earned or deserved by the sinner. It is a Christian theologi ...
''.
God's providence and human free will
Arminianism accepts
classical theism
Classical theism is a theological and philosophical form of theism that conceives of God as the ultimate reality, ultimate reality, characterized by attributes such as omnibenevolence, omnipotence, and omniscience. Rooted in the ancient Greek p ...
, which states that God is
omnipresent
Omnipresence or ubiquity is the property of being present anywhere and everywhere. The term omnipresence is most often used in a religious context as an attribute of a deity or supreme being, while the term ubiquity is generally used to describ ...
,
omnipotent
Omnipotence is the property of possessing maximal power. Monotheistic religions generally attribute omnipotence only to the deity of their faith. In the monotheistic religious philosophy of Abrahamic religions, omnipotence is often listed as ...
, and
omniscient
Omniscience is the property of possessing maximal knowledge. In Hinduism, Sikhism and the Abrahamic religions, it is often attributed to a divine being or an all-knowing spirit, entity or person. In Jainism, omniscience is an attribute that any ...
. In that view, God's power, knowledge, and presence have no external limitations, that is, outside of his divine nature and character.
Besides, Arminianism's view of God's
sovereignty
Sovereignty can generally be defined as supreme authority. Sovereignty entails hierarchy within a state as well as external autonomy for states. In any state, sovereignty is assigned to the person, body or institution that has the ultimate au ...
is based on postulates stemming from God's character. On the first hand, divine election must be defined so that God is not, in any case, and even in a secondary way, the author of
evil
Evil, as a concept, is usually defined as profoundly immoral behavior, and it is related to acts that cause unnecessary pain and suffering to others.
Evil is commonly seen as the opposite, or sometimes absence, of good. It can be an extreme ...
. It would not correspond to the character of God, especially as fully revealed in Jesus Christ. On the other hand, man's responsibility for evil must be preserved. Those two postulates require a specific way by which God chooses to manifest his sovereignty when interacting with his creatures.
On one hand, it requires God to operate according to a limited mode of
providence
Providence often refers to:
* Providentia, the divine personification of foresight in ancient Roman religion
* Divine providence, divinely ordained events and outcomes in some religions
* Providence, Rhode Island, the capital of Rhode Island in the ...
. This means that God deliberately exercises sovereignty without determining every event. On the other hand, it requires God's
election
An election is a formal group decision-making process whereby a population chooses an individual or multiple individuals to hold Public administration, public office.
Elections have been the usual mechanism by which modern representative d ...
to be a "
predestination
Predestination, in theology, is the doctrine that all events have been willed by God, usually with reference to the eventual fate of the individual soul. Explanations of predestination often seek to address the paradox of free will, whereby Go ...
by foreknowledge". Therefore, God's foreknowledge is exhaustive and complete, aligning his certainty with human freedom of action.
Philosophical view on free will
Arminianism is aligned with classical free-will theism, adopting an
incompatibilist position. It asserts that the
free will
Free will is generally understood as the capacity or ability of people to (a) choice, choose between different possible courses of Action (philosophy), action, (b) exercise control over their actions in a way that is necessary for moral respon ...
essential for
moral responsibility
In philosophy, moral responsibility is the status of morality, morally desert (philosophy), deserving praise, blame, reward (psychology), reward, or punishment for an act or omission in accordance with one's moral obligations. Deciding what (if ...
is inherently incompatible with
determinism
Determinism is the Metaphysics, metaphysical view that all events within the universe (or multiverse) can occur only in one possible way. Deterministic theories throughout the history of philosophy have developed from diverse and sometimes ov ...
. In Arminian theology, human beings possess
libertarian free will
Libertarianism is one of the main philosophical positions related to the problems of free will and determinism which are part of the larger domain of metaphysics. In particular, libertarianism is an incompatibilist position which argues that fre ...
, making them the ultimate source of their choices and granting them the ability to choose otherwise. This philosophical framework upholds the concept of
divine providence
In theology, divine providence, or simply providence, is God's intervention in the universe. The term ''Divine Providence'' (usually capitalized) is also used as a names of God, title of God. A distinction is usually made between "general prov ...
, allowing God's influence and supervision over
creation. However, it permits the idea of God's absolute control over human actions, as long as such control does not involve human responsibility.
Spiritual view on free will
Arminianism holds that all human are initially deprived of the
Holy Spirit
The Holy Spirit, otherwise known as the Holy Ghost, is a concept within the Abrahamic religions. In Judaism, the Holy Spirit is understood as the divine quality or force of God manifesting in the world, particularly in acts of prophecy, creati ...
and, as a result, exist in a moral state of
total depravity
Total depravity (also called radical corruption or pervasive depravity) is a Protestant theological doctrine derived from the concept of original sin
Original sin () in Christian theology refers to the condition of sinfulness that all h ...
. In this condition, human free will is incapable of choosing spiritual good without the aid of
divine grace. Arminius likely believed that every person is born in this depraved condition because
Adam
Adam is the name given in Genesis 1–5 to the first human. Adam is the first human-being aware of God, and features as such in various belief systems (including Judaism, Christianity, Gnosticism and Islam).
According to Christianity, Adam ...
, as humanity's representative,
sinned
In religion, religious context, sin is a transgression against divine law or a law of the deities. Each culture has its own interpretation of what it means to commit a sin. While sins are generally considered actions, any thought, word, or act ...
against God—a view later shared by several prominent Arminians. Like
Augustine
Augustine of Hippo ( , ; ; 13 November 354 – 28 August 430) was a theologian and philosopher of Berber origin and the bishop of Hippo Regius in Numidia, Roman North Africa. His writings deeply influenced the development of Western philosop ...
,
Luther, and
Calvin Calvin may refer to:
Names
* Calvin (given name)
** Particularly Calvin Coolidge, 30th President of the United States
* Calvin (surname)
** Particularly John Calvin, theologian
Places
In the United States
* Calvin, Arkansas, a hamlet
* Calvin T ...
, Arminius agreed that human free will is spiritually "captive" and "enslaved". However, through the action of
prevenient grace
Prevenient grace (or preceding grace or enabling grace) is a Christian theological concept that refers to the grace of God in a person's life which precedes and prepares to conversion. The concept was first developed by Augustine of Hippo (354 ...
, human free will can be "freed", meaning it can be restored with the ability to choose the spiritual good, particularly the capacity to accept God's call to
salvation
Salvation (from Latin: ''salvatio'', from ''salva'', 'safe, saved') is the state of being saved or protected from harm or a dire situation. In religion and theology, ''salvation'' generally refers to the deliverance of the soul from sin and its c ...
.
Extent and nature of the atonement
Atonement is intended universally: Jesus's death was for all people; Jesus draws all people to himself, with the opportunity for salvation through
faith
Faith is confidence or trust in a person, thing, or concept. In the context of religion, faith is " belief in God or in the doctrines or teachings of religion".
According to the Merriam-Webster's Dictionary, faith has multiple definitions, inc ...
.
Jesus's death satisfies God's justice: The penalty for the sins of the elect is paid in full through the
crucifixion of Jesus
The crucifixion of Jesus was the death of Jesus by being crucifixion, nailed to a cross.The instrument of Jesus' crucifixion, instrument of crucifixion is taken to be an upright wooden beam to which was added a transverse wooden beam, thus f ...
. Thus, Jesus's death atones for all sins but requires faith to be effected. Arminius states that "Justification, when used for the act of a Judge, is either purely the imputation of righteousness through mercy
..or that man is justified before God
..according to the rigor of justice without any forgiveness."
Justification, therefore, is seen through mercy by the
imputation of righteousness. While not rigidly defined, this view suggests that the righteousness of Christ is attributed to believers, emphasizing that
union with Christ
In its widest sense, the phrase union with Christ refers to the relationship between the believer and Jesus Christ. In this sense, John Murray says that union with Christ is "the central truth of the whole doctrine of salvation". The expression "i ...
(conditioned on faith) transfers his righteousness to them.
Christ's atonement has a substitutionary effect, which is limited only to the elect. Arminius held that God's justice was satisfied by
penal substitution
Penal substitution, also called penal substitutionary atonement and especially in older writings forensic theory,Vincent Taylor (theologian), Vincent Taylor, ''The Cross of Christ'' (London: Macmillan & Co, 1956), pp. 71–72: '...the ''four main ...
. Hugo Grotius taught that it was satisfied
governmentally. Historical and contemporary Arminians have held one of these views.
Conversion of man
In Arminianism, God initiates the process of salvation by extending his grace, commonly referred to as
''prevenient'' grace, to all people. This grace works within each individual, drawing them toward the Gospel and enabling sincere faith, leading to
regeneration. It functions through a dynamic influence-and-response relationship, allowing individuals to accept or reject it freely. Thus, conversion is described as a "God-initiated
synergism
In Christian theology, synergism refers to the cooperative effort between God and humanity in the process of Salvation in Christianity, salvation. Before Augustine of Hippo (354–430), synergism was almost universally endorsed. Later, it came to ...
."
Election of man
Election is conditional: Arminius defined ''election'' as "the decree of God by which, of Himself, from eternity, He decreed to justify in Christ, believers, and to accept them unto eternal life." God alone determines who will be saved, and he decides that all who believe Jesus through faith will be justified. Arminius states, "God regards no one in Christ unless they are engrafted in him by faith."
God predestines the elect to a glorious future: Predestination is not the predetermination of who will believe but rather the predetermination of the believer's future inheritance. The elect are therefore predestined to sonship through
adoption
Adoption is a process whereby a person assumes the parenting of another, usually a child, from that person's biological or legal parent or parents. Legal adoptions permanently transfer all rights and responsibilities, along with filiation, fro ...
,
glorification
Glorification may have several meanings in Christianity. From the Catholic canonization to the similar sainthood of the Eastern Orthodox Church to salvation in Christianity in Protestant beliefs, the glorification of the human condition can be ...
, and
eternal life.
Preservation of man
Related to
eschatological
Eschatology (; ) concerns expectations of the end of present age, human history, or the world itself. The end of the world or end times is predicted by several world religions (both Abrahamic and non-Abrahamic), which teach that negative world ...
considerations, Jacobus Arminius and the first Remonstrants, including
Simon Episcopius
Simon Episcopius (8 January 1583 – 4 April 1643) was a Dutch theologian and Remonstrant who played a significant role at the Synod of Dort in 1618. His name is the Latinized form of his Dutch name Simon Bisschop.
Life
Born in Amsterdam, in 16 ...
believed in
everlasting fire where the
wicked
Wicked may refer to:
Books
* ''Wicked'' (Maguire novel), a 1995 novel by Gregory Maguire that inspired the musical of the same name
* ''Wicked'', a 1997 novel series collaboration between Australian children's authors Paul Jennings and Morris ...
are thrown by God at
judgment day
The Last Judgment is a concept found across the Abrahamic religions and the '' Frashokereti'' of Zoroastrianism.
Christianity considers the Second Coming of Jesus Christ to entail the final judgment by God of all people who have ever lived, res ...
.
Preservation is conditional: All believers have full
assurance of salvation
As a general term in theological use, assurance refers to a believer's confidence in God, God's response to prayer, and the hope of eternal salvation. In Protestant Christian doctrine, the term "assurance", also known as the Witness of the Spirit ...
with the condition that they remain in Christ. Salvation is conditioned on faith; therefore, perseverance is also conditioned. Arminius believed the Scriptures taught that believers are graciously empowered by Christ and the
Holy Spirit
The Holy Spirit, otherwise known as the Holy Ghost, is a concept within the Abrahamic religions. In Judaism, the Holy Spirit is understood as the divine quality or force of God manifesting in the world, particularly in acts of prophecy, creati ...
"to fight against Satan, sin, the world and their own flesh, and to gain the victory over these enemies." Furthermore, Christ and the Spirit are ever present to aid and assist believers through various temptations. But this security was not unconditional but conditional—"provided they
elieversstand prepared for the battle, implore his help, and be not wanting to themselves, Christ preserves them from
falling
Falling or fallin' may refer to:
*Falling (physics), movement due to gravity
*Falling (accident)
* Falling (execution)
*Falling (sensation)
People
* Christine Falling (born 1963), American serial killer who murdered six children
Books
* ''Fal ...
."
Possibility of apostasy
Arminius believed in the possibility of
apostasy
Apostasy (; ) is the formal religious disaffiliation, disaffiliation from, abandonment of, or renunciation of a religion by a person. It can also be defined within the broader context of embracing an opinion that is contrary to one's previous re ...
. However, over the period of time he wrote on this question, he sometimes expressed himself more cautiously out of consideration for the faith of his readers. In 1599, he stated that the question required more
scriptural
Religious texts, including scripture, are texts which various religions consider to be of central importance to their religious tradition. They often feature a compilation or discussion of beliefs, ritual practices, moral commandments and ...
examination. In his "Declaration of Sentiments" (1607), Arminius said, "I never taught that a true believer can, either totally or finally fall away from the faith, and perish; yet I will not conceal, that there are passages of scripture which seem to me to wear this aspect."
However, Arminius elsewhere expressed certainty about the possibility of falling away: In c. 1602, he noted that a person integrated into the church might resist God's work and that a believer's security rested solely on their choice not to abandon their faith. He argued that God's covenant did not eliminate the possibility of falling away but provided a gift of fear to keep individuals from defecting as long as it thrived in their hearts. He then taught that had
David
David (; , "beloved one") was a king of ancient Israel and Judah and the third king of the United Monarchy, according to the Hebrew Bible and Old Testament.
The Tel Dan stele, an Aramaic-inscribed stone erected by a king of Aram-Dam ...
died in sin, he would have been lost. In 1602, Arminius also wrote: "A believing member of Christ may become slothful, give place to sin, and gradually die altogether, ceasing to be a member".
For Arminius, a certain class of sin would cause a believer to fall, especially sin motivated by malice. In 1605, Arminius wrote: “But it is possible for a believer to fall into a mortal sin, as is seen in David. Therefore, he can fall at that moment in which if he were to die, he would be condemned". Scholars observe that Arminius clearly identifies two paths to apostasy 1. "rejection", or 2. "malicious sinning". He suggested that strictly speaking, believers could not directly lose their faith but could cease to believe and thus fall away.
After the death of Arminius in 1609, his followers wrote a ''
Remonstrance'' (1610) based quite literally on his ''Declaration of Sentiments'' (1607), which expressed prudence on the possibility of apostasy. In particular, its fifth article expressed the necessity of further study on the possibility of apostasy. Sometime between 1610 and the official proceeding of the
Synod of Dort
The Synod of Dort (also known as the Synod of Dordt or the Synod of Dordrecht) was a European transnational Synod held in Dordrecht in 1618–1619, by the Dutch Reformed Church, to settle a divisive controversy caused by the rise of Arminianism. ...
(1618), the
Remonstrants
The Remonstrants (or the Remonstrant Brotherhood) is a Protestant movement that split from the Dutch Reformed Church in the early 17th century. The early Remonstrants supported Jacobus Arminius, and after his death, continued to maintain his or ...
became fully persuaded in their minds that the Scriptures taught that a true believer was capable of falling away from faith and perishing eternally as an unbeliever. They formalized their views in "The Opinion of the Remonstrants" (1618), which was their official stand during the Synod of Dort. They later expressed this same view in the ''
Remonstrant Confession
The ''Confession or Declaration of the Pastors which are called Remonstrants'', or Remonstrant Confession, was the confession of faith of the Remonstrant brotherhood, published in 1621.
Historical context
By the decrees of the Synod of Dort, th ...
'' (1621).
Forgivability of apostasy
Arminius maintained that if the apostasy came from "malicious" sin, it was forgivable. If it came from "rejection," it was not. Following Arminius, the Remonstrants believed that, though possible, apostasy was not in general irremediable. However, other classical Arminians, including the
Free Will Baptist
Free Will Baptists or Free Baptists are a group originating from General Baptists that emphasizes the teaching of free salvation and free will. The movement can be traced back to the General Baptists in 17th century England.
In 1702, Paul Palm ...
s, have taught that apostasy is irremediable.
Wesleyan Arminianism
Distinctive aspect
John Wesley
John Wesley ( ; 2 March 1791) was an English cleric, Christian theology, theologian, and Evangelism, evangelist who was a principal leader of a Christian revival, revival movement within the Church of England known as Methodism. The societies ...
thoroughly agreed with the vast majority of what Arminius himself taught. Wesleyan Arminianism is a merger of classical Arminianism and
Wesleyan perfectionism.
Nature of the atonement
Wesley's view of atonement is either understood as a hybrid of
penal substitution
Penal substitution, also called penal substitutionary atonement and especially in older writings forensic theory,Vincent Taylor (theologian), Vincent Taylor, ''The Cross of Christ'' (London: Macmillan & Co, 1956), pp. 71–72: '...the ''four main ...
and the
governmental
A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, generally a State (polity), state.
In the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists of legislature, executive (government), execu ...
theory, or it is viewed solely as penal substitution. Historically, Wesleyan Arminians adopted either the penal or governmental theory of atonement.
Justification and sanctification
In Wesleyan theology,
justification is understood as the forgiveness of sins rather than being made inherently righteous. Righteousness is achieved through
sanctification
Sacred describes something that is dedicated or set apart for the service or worship of a deity; is considered worthy of spiritual respect or devotion; or inspires awe or reverence among believers. The property is often ascribed to objects ( ...
, which involves the pursuit of holiness in one's life. Wesley taught that
imputed righteousness
Imputed righteousness is a concept in Christian theology proposing that the "righteousness of Christ ... is imputed to elievers��that is, treated as if it were theirs—through faith." It is on the basis of Jesus' righteousness that God acc ...
, which refers to the righteousness credited to a believer through faith, must transform into
imparted righteousness
Imparted righteousness, in Methodist theology, is that gracious gift of God given at the moment of the new birth which enables a Christian disciple to strive for holiness and sanctification. John Wesley believed that imparted righteousness wo ...
, where this righteousness becomes evident in the believer's life.
Christian perfection
Wesley taught that through the
Holy Spirit
The Holy Spirit, otherwise known as the Holy Ghost, is a concept within the Abrahamic religions. In Judaism, the Holy Spirit is understood as the divine quality or force of God manifesting in the world, particularly in acts of prophecy, creati ...
, Christians could achieve a state of practical perfection, or "
entire sanctification
Within many Christian denomination, denominations of Christianity, Christian perfection is the theological concept of the process or the event of achieving spiritual maturity or perfection. The ultimate goal of this process is Divinization (Chris ...
", characterized by a lack of voluntary
sin
In religious context, sin is a transgression against divine law or a law of the deities. Each culture has its own interpretation of what it means to commit a sin. While sins are generally considered actions, any thought, word, or act considered ...
. This state involves embodying the love of God and neighbor. It does not mean freedom from all mistakes or temptations, as perfected Christians still need to seek forgiveness and strive for
holiness
Sacred describes something that is dedicated or set apart for the service or worship of a deity; is considered worthy of spiritual respect or devotion; or inspires awe or reverence among believers. The property is often ascribed to objects ( ...
. Ultimately, perfection in this context is about love, not absolute perfection.
Preservation and apostasy of man
Wesley believed genuine Christians could
apostatize
Apostasy (; ) is the formal disaffiliation from, abandonment of, or renunciation of a religion by a person. It can also be defined within the broader context of embracing an opinion that is contrary to one's previous religious beliefs. One who ...
. He emphasized that sin alone does not lead to this loss; instead, prolonged unconfessed sin and deliberate apostasy can result in a permanent fall from grace. However, he believed that such apostasy was not irremediable.
Corporate election variation
The majority Arminian view is that election is individual and based on God's foreknowledge of faith. In the corporate election view, God chose the believing church collectively for salvation rather than selecting individuals. Jesus is seen as the only person elected, and individuals join the elect through faith "in Christ". This view is supported by Old Testament and Jewish concepts, where identity is rooted more in group membership than individuality.
Arminianism and other views
Divergence with Pelagianism
Pelagianism
Pelagianism is a Christian theological position that holds that the fall did not taint human nature and that humans by divine grace have free will to achieve human perfection. Pelagius (), an ascetic and philosopher from the British Isles, ta ...
is a doctrine denying
original sin
Original sin () in Christian theology refers to the condition of sinfulness that all humans share, which is inherited from Adam and Eve due to the Fall of man, Fall, involving the loss of original righteousness and the distortion of the Image ...
and
total depravity
Total depravity (also called radical corruption or pervasive depravity) is a Protestant theological doctrine derived from the concept of original sin
Original sin () in Christian theology refers to the condition of sinfulness that all h ...
. No system of Arminianism founded on Arminius or Wesley denies original sin or total depravity; both Arminius and Wesley ''strongly'' affirmed that man's basic condition is one in which he cannot be righteous, understand God, or seek God. Arminius referred to Pelagianism as "the grand falsehood" and stated that he "must confess that I detest, from my heart, the consequences
f that theology" This association is considered as libelous when attributed to Arminius' or Wesley's doctrine, and Arminians reject all accusations of Pelagianism.
Divergence with Semi-Pelagianism
Semi-Pelagianism
Semi-Pelagianism (or Semipelagianism) is a historical Christian theological and soteriological school of thought about the role of free will in salvation. In semipelagian thought, a distinction is made between the beginning of faith and the incre ...
holds that faith begins with human will, while its continuation and fulfillment depend on God's grace, giving it the label "human-initiated
synergism
In Christian theology, synergism refers to the cooperative effort between God and humanity in the process of Salvation in Christianity, salvation. Before Augustine of Hippo (354–430), synergism was almost universally endorsed. Later, it came to ...
". In contrast, both Classical and Wesleyan Arminianism affirm that
prevenient grace
Prevenient grace (or preceding grace or enabling grace) is a Christian theological concept that refers to the grace of God in a person's life which precedes and prepares to conversion. The concept was first developed by Augustine of Hippo (354 ...
from God initiates the process of salvation, a view sometimes referred to as "Semi-Augustinian", or "God-initiated synergism". Following the
Reformation
The Reformation, also known as the Protestant Reformation or the European Reformation, was a time of major Theology, theological movement in Western Christianity in 16th-century Europe that posed a religious and political challenge to the p ...
,
Reformed
Reform is beneficial change.
Reform, reformed or reforming may also refer to:
Media
* ''Reform'' (album), a 2011 album by Jane Zhang
* Reform (band), a Swedish jazz fusion group
* ''Reform'' (magazine), a Christian magazine
Places
* Reform, Al ...
theologians often categorized both "human-initiated synergism" and "God-initiated synergism" as "Semi-Pelagianism", often leading to mistaken belief that Arminianism aligned with Semi-Pelagianism.
Divergence with Calvinism
Calvinism and Arminianism, while sharing
historical roots and many theological doctrines, diverge notably on the concepts of divine predestination and election. While some perceive these differences as fundamental, others regard them as relatively minor distinctions within the broader spectrum of Christian theology.
Similarities
* Human spiritual condition: Arminians agree with Calvinists on the doctrine of
total depravity
Total depravity (also called radical corruption or pervasive depravity) is a Protestant theological doctrine derived from the concept of original sin
Original sin () in Christian theology refers to the condition of sinfulness that all h ...
, but differ in their understanding of how God remedies this human condition.
Differences
* Nature of election: Arminians believe election to final salvation is
conditional on faith, while Calvinists hold that
unconditional election
Unconditional election (also called sovereign election or unconditional grace) is a Calvinist doctrine relating to predestination that describes the actions and motives of God prior to his creation of the world, when he predestined some people t ...
is based on God's
predeterminism
Predeterminism is the philosophy that all events of history, past, present and future, have been already decided or are already known (by God, fate, or some other force), including human actions.
Predeterminism is closely related to determinism. ...
making Him the ultimate cause of everything, including human
faith
Faith is confidence or trust in a person, thing, or concept. In the context of religion, faith is " belief in God or in the doctrines or teachings of religion".
According to the Merriam-Webster's Dictionary, faith has multiple definitions, inc ...
.
* Nature of grace: Arminians believe that, through
prevenient grace
Prevenient grace (or preceding grace or enabling grace) is a Christian theological concept that refers to the grace of God in a person's life which precedes and prepares to conversion. The concept was first developed by Augustine of Hippo (354 ...
, God universally restores the individual spiritual ability to choose and that subsequent
justifying grace is resistible. Calvinists however, assert that God's
effectual call is given only to the elect and that subsequent grace is
irresistible.
* Extent of the atonement: Arminians, along with
four-point Calvinists, advocate for a
universal atonement
Unlimited atonement (sometimes called general atonement or universal atonement) is a doctrine in Protestant Christianity that states Jesus died as a propitiation for the benefit of all humans without exception. It is normally associated with Amyr ...
, contrary to the Calvinist doctrine that atonement is
limited to the elect. Both sides, excluding
hyper-Calvinists, believe the Gospel invitation is universal and should be presented to everyone without distinction.
* Perseverance in faith: Arminians believe preservation to final salvation is
conditional on faith and can be lost through
apostasy
Apostasy (; ) is the formal religious disaffiliation, disaffiliation from, abandonment of, or renunciation of a religion by a person. It can also be defined within the broader context of embracing an opinion that is contrary to one's previous re ...
. They contend for a present security in Christ, relying on His protection from all external forces. Calvinists, on the other hand, hold to the
perseverance of the saints
Perseverance of the saints, also known as preservation of the saints, is a Calvinist doctrine asserting that the elect will persevere in faith and ultimately achieve salvation. This concept was initially developed by Augustine of Hippo in the ea ...
, asserting that the
elect will persevere in
faith
Faith is confidence or trust in a person, thing, or concept. In the context of religion, faith is " belief in God or in the doctrines or teachings of religion".
According to the Merriam-Webster's Dictionary, faith has multiple definitions, inc ...
until the end of their lives. However, a believer cannot know with certainty if they are elect until they reach the end. This leads to different interpretations on the assurance of final salvation within Calvinist circles.
Divergence with open theism
The doctrine of
open theism states that God is omnipresent, omnipotent, and omniscient, but differs on the nature of the future. Open theists claim that the future is not completely determined (or "settled") because people have not made their free decisions yet. God therefore knows the future partially in possibilities (human free actions) rather than solely certainties (divinely determined events). Some Arminians, reject open theism, viewing it as a distortion of traditional Arminianism.
[. Picirilli actually objects so strongly to the link between Arminianism and open theism that he devotes an entire section to his objections.] They believe it shifts away from classical Arminianism toward
process theology
Process theology is a type of theology developed from Alfred North Whitehead's (1861–1947) process philosophy, but most notably by Charles Hartshorne (1897–2000), John B. Cobb (1925–2024), and Eugene H. Peters (1929–1983). Process ...
. Others view it as a valid alternative perspective within Christianity, despite not aligning it with Arminian doctrine.
See also
*
Apostasy in Christianity
Apostasy in Christianity is the abandonment or renunciation of Christianity by someone who formerly was a Christian. The term apostasy comes from the Greek word ''apostasia'' (" ἀποστασία") meaning "rebellion", "state of apostasy", "ab ...
*
Covenant theology
Covenant theology (also known as covenantalism, federal theology, or federalism) is a biblical theology, a conceptual overview and interpretive framework for understanding the overall structure of the Bible. It is often distinguished from dis ...
*
Decisional regeneration
*
Free will in theology
Free will in theology is an important part of the debate on free will in general. Religions vary greatly in their response to the standard argument against free will and thus might appeal to any number of responses to the paradox of free will, t ...
* Grace in Christianity
*
Justification
* Ordo salutis, Order of salvation
* Salvation in Christianity
* Sovereignty of God in Christianity
* Substitutionary atonement
** Satisfaction theory of atonement, Satisfaction theory
** Penal substitution, Penal theory
** Governmental theory of atonement, Governmental theory
* Synergism
Notes and references
Citations
Sources
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External links
The Society of Evangelical Arminians
{{Authority control
Arminianism,
17th-century Reformed Christianity
Reformed Christianity in the Dutch Republic
Christian terminology
Christian theological movements
Jacobus Arminius
Methodism
Philosophy and thought in the Dutch Republic
Protestant theology
Seventh-day Adventist theology