Arigho

Arigho () was the thirtieth (king) of Igodomigodo, an early kingdom that later became part of the Benin Empire. His reign occurred during the Great Famine, which had begun during the rule of his father, Ogiso Obioye. Although he had personal wealth prior to his ascension, Arigho inherited a kingdom facing economic challenges. To address the kingdom's financial instability, he implemented an economic reform known as , a "double payment" taxation system aimed at reducing the amount of currency in circulation and stabilising the economy. This policy increased the royal treasury but has been described as intensifying class divisions, with some accounts noting a rise in voluntary servitude among the lower classes. Additionally, Arigho's reign witnessed the emergence of the , described in oral traditions as a man-eating entity that disrupted commerce and travel.

Arigho's reign lasted four years until his death in 1125. He left a treasury stored in the ("seven deeps"). He was succeeded by his only surviving son, Owodo. The kingdom continued to experience instability during this period. Historians recognise Arigho for his economic policies during the Ogiso period, which are considered a significant point in precolonial West African economic history.

Early life and background

Arigho was the son of Obioye, the twenty-ninth ruler during the Ogiso era of Igodomigodo (modern-day Benin Kingdom). His upbringing was influenced by his grandfather, Ogiso Oduwa, who began as an ironsmith and later expanded into brass-smithing, accumulating wealth through craftsmanship and trade. Unlike his father, who was raised in a rural farming community, Arigho grew up in an urban, commercial environment. From a young age, Arigho was involved in trade and financial management through his grandfather's business activities. He became familiar with the kingdom's economic systems and currency circulation. Instead of pursuing agriculture like his father, he learned metalwork, specialising in iron and brass craftsmanship. He also traded items such as camwood beads, palm-nut beads, and cowrie shells as currency, which were valued in Igodomigodo. His name, Arigho—meaning "money eater" or "money changer"—reflected his engagement in trade and wealth management.

During his formative years, Arigho associated with the , the royal historians and artists of the kingdom, who preserved the histories of past rulers through oral traditions and artistic representations. Through interactions with them, Arigho learned about the administration of the kingdom. He engaged in discussions about governance and state affairs, experiences that influenced his later leadership. Upon his ascension to the throne, Arigho faced economic challenges. The kingdom was already in economic turmoil due to a severe famine that had begun at the end of Oduwa's reign. Many citizens had migrated to other regions in search of food, and inflation had reduced the value of money. Arigho proposed financial interventions to address the crisis. His experience with long-distance trade in regions such as Yoruba, Ilorin, Nupe, Igbirra, and Igbomina influenced his approach. This understanding of trade and currency circulation was central when he later introduced his financial policy known as ''Igho Arigho'' ("Arigho's money").

The famine had continued for several years, leading to food shortages and affecting the population. As king, Arigho sought to address the economic decline using financial mechanisms instead of agricultural reforms. He believed that reducing the currency in circulation would encourage productivity. This strategy represented an economic policy during the Ogiso period.

Reign

Ascension

In 1121 AD, following the death of his father Ogiso Obioye, Arigho ascended to the throne of Igodomigodo. His coronation took place during severe economic turmoil, as the Great Famine had affected the kingdom for years. The famine led to widespread starvation, prompting many people to migrate beyond Igodomigodo's borders in search of relief. Under Obioye's rule, the royal treasury had been depleted, and the Ogiso monarchy had lost influence over the nobility. This weakening of the monarchy was reflected in the actions of the nobles, especially the ("dukes") and ("senior community chiefs"), who began governing their territories with increasing autonomy. Several outlying regions—including Etsako, Otuo, Urhobo, and Isoko—ceased paying tribute to the throne, challenging the unity of the kingdom. The palace administration struggled to enforce its decrees, with some chiefs openly defying royal authority. Without a strong central government, Igodomigodo faced the risk of fragmentation.

Believing that military force would be insufficient to restore royal control due to limited resources and the potential for internal strife to further weaken the kingdom, Arigho decided to implement economic policies to restore stability and reinforce the monarchy's financial strength. His objective was to reestablish the palace as the central economic hub, ensuring that wealth and resources flowed into the king's treasury. Arigho took steps to restructure the economic framework. He introduced a new taxation model—the , or "double payment" system—which was considered controversial. Arigho's rise to power initiated efforts to rebuild the kingdom's economy and reassert the monarchy's role. His financial policies influenced Igodomigodo's social and political landscape. Throughout his four-year reign, he faced challenges related to economic reform and political consolidation. These policies met resistance, leading to various outcomes.

Economic reforms

Under the decree, buyers were required to pay double the listed price for all purchases, including in markets, on farms, in streets, or during private exchanges. The additional payment was directed to the king's treasury, stored within designated ("shrine houses"). This policy aimed to reduce money in circulation and encourage the populace to focus on direct production rather than spending. Sellers faced penalties if they failed to collect the second payment, and officials caught embezzling the king's share of the tax were mandated to repay twice the stolen sum. To enforce this policy, royal officials known as ("royal information ministry") were appointed to oversee transactions and tax collection. These officials monitored markets to ensure compliance with the royal decree. They inspected trading zones, resolved disputes, and addressed violations. Those who attempted to evade the policy or refused to comply with tax regulations faced penalties, including paying double the amount owed or forfeiting their goods. Through enforcement of tax compliance, Arigho sought to stabilise the economy and strengthen the monarchy's financial reserves.

The implementation of the system led to changes in the economy. As surplus currency was removed, inflation decreased, and the value of goods stabilised. More individuals turned to farming for sustenance, reducing dependence on market purchases. As food production increased, some hardships of the famine were alleviated. The monarchy, with increased treasury funds under Arigho's reforms, regained some authority. With improved economic conditions, nobles who had previously distanced themselves from the palace began to re-engage in royal affairs. Arigho's economic policy also had social effects. The increased taxation placed a burden on the lower classes, who faced challenges in fulfilling the double-payment obligations. Voluntary servitude became more common, with individuals affiliating themselves with wealthy nobles in exchange for sustenance and protection. These individuals, often referred to as household servants, were integrated into noble households as farm labourers, traders, and domestic workers, but were not involved in the transatlantic slave trade. Some were permitted to marry into their master's family or establish independent farms under oversight. This period saw shifts in the social structure, with wealth and power becoming more concentrated among the elite.

Arigho's financial reforms influenced the economy of Igodomigodo, affecting how the monarchy managed economic matters. His strategy of using taxation to regulate currency circulation was a notable approach during the kingdom's history. While his reforms brought changes to the economy, they also led to social and political tensions that contributed to challenges after his death. His economic policies are recognised in historical accounts of the Ogiso period.

Socioeconomic impact

During this period, the noble class's influence expanded as they accumulated wealth and resources by employing labourers. Nobles utilised their growing workforces to enhance agricultural production, leading to the prosperity of farm estates in regions like Udo, Ugboko, and Ogbese. Some noble families diversified into cattle rearing, deploying their labourers to manage herds in areas such as Usen, Uhen, and Iguemokhua. Over time, villages primarily consisting of dependent labourers emerged, some of which evolved into permanent settlements. These developments contributed to the sustained influence of the noble class and affected social mobility among commoners.

In addition to changes in labour structures, Arigho's reign saw advancements in art and craftsmanship. The shift towards non-farming economic activities increased metalwork, wood carving, and textile production. While specialised crafts like brass work remained the exclusive domain of royal guilds such as the , independent artisans flourished in smaller communities. Some labourers acquired ironworking skills, producing essential farm tools such as ("cutlasses"), ("hoes"), and ("axes") that supported agricultural productivity. The area known as was known for its ironworkers, who supplied tools to both nobles and commoners. An outcome of Arigho's policies was the consolidation of financial power within the monarchy. The taxation system increased the royal treasury, enabling the palace to exert greater control over the economy. Large amounts of cowries collected under "Igho Arigho" were stored in the king's ("royal treasury"), providing the monarchy with resources to finance state functions and ceremonies.

Challenges and the crisis

Although Ogiso Arigho implemented economic reforms, his reign faced significant challenges, notably the emergence of the crisis. The term referred to mysterious, man-eating creatures that, according to oral traditions, appeared during the final years of his rule and caused widespread fear. These were believed to be humans transformed into supernatural beings who preyed upon people at the height of the famine. They were said to knock down their victims, crush them completely, and swallow them whole. Their reported presence added to the hardships already caused by food scarcity and economic instability.

Reports of the most prominent came from Okedo, a densely forested slope near the Ikpoba River, situated along a key trade route between Eyaennugie and the river. This area was crucial for merchants travelling to ("Ogiso market"), the kingdom's main commercial hub, later nicknamed . The name derives from a fearful traders' saying: ("we trade together, but we do not return together"). The reported presence of the at Okedo disrupted access to the market, affecting economic activity and isolating communities. Fear spread, and fewer traders were willing to travel through the area. Those who did reach the marketplace often returned with accounts of merchants disappearing or being harmed and consequently, the bustling market lost prominence.

The economic repercussions of the crisis led to abandoned trade routes and a slowdown in commercial activities, reversing some of the economic gains achieved through Arigho's tax reforms. Distributing food became more challenging, exacerbating the famine's impact on the population. As public fear intensified, rumours circulated that the had been summoned by supernatural means to punish the kingdom for its economic policies. Some believed that the taxation system, which had drained money from circulation, had provoked divine retribution. This led to divisions among the populace, with some viewing Arigho as a visionary ruler, while others saw him as the cause of the crisis.

Arigho implemented measures to address public fear, deploying royal guards and hunters to patrol Okedo in an effort to locate and eliminate the reported . Despite these efforts, no captures were made. Priests and diviners were consulted, and rituals were conducted in an attempt to counter the perceived supernatural threat. Some shrines attributed the to restless spirits reacting to the kingdom's hardships. In response, Arigho ordered purification ceremonies to restore order and reassure the populace. By the time of Arigho's death , the crisis remained unresolved. Although food production had begun to improve and inflation had stabilised, concerns about the reported creatures persisted. His successor, Owodo, inherited both the economic recovery initiated under and the lingering fears associated with the unexplained disturbances.

Death and succession

Upon his death in , Arigho was buried near the royal treasury. In keeping with tradition, the wealth accumulated through was designated as "untouchable money", reserved exclusively for the reigning monarch. This treasure was reportedly stored in the ("seven deeps"), each containing approximately 200 million cowries, totalling 1.4 billion cowries. This accumulation of wealth was notable in Igodomigodo's history, highlighting Arigho's financial policies during the Ogiso era.

Arigho had fourteen children—seven sons and seven daughters—but only one son, Owodo, and one daughter, Iduzode, survived him. The , the council of nobles responsible for selecting the next , chose Owodo as his successor. Owodo was a direct heir, and the transition proceeded smoothly compared to previous successions that involved distant or contested claimants. Some nobles, however, doubted Owodo's ability to govern effectively.

Following Arigho's death, the political climate was uncertain. Despite the kingdom's financial stability, the relationship between the monarchy and the nobility was fragile. The and ("provincial governors"), many of whom had gained power through independent wealth, were reluctant to submit to royal authority. Additionally, the ongoing fear of the continued to disrupt trade, affecting economic recovery. As Arigho's successor, Owodo inherited the royal treasury and the task of addressing the economic and social issues that had arisen.

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1125 deaths
People from Benin City
11th-century Nigerian people
11th-century monarchs in Africa
Ogisos of Igodomigodo