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Areus I (; 320 or 312 – 265 BC) was Agiad
King of Sparta For most of its history, the ancient Greek city-state of Sparta in the Peloponnese was ruled by kings. Sparta was unusual among the Greek city-states in that it maintained its kingship past the Archaic age. It was even more unusual in that it ha ...
from 309 to 265 BC. His reign is noted for his attempts to transform Sparta into a Hellenistic kingdom and to recover its former pre-eminence in
Greece Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. Located on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, North Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to th ...
, notably against the kings Antigonos Gonatas of
Macedonia Macedonia (, , , ), most commonly refers to: * North Macedonia, a country in southeastern Europe, known until 2019 as the Republic of Macedonia * Macedonia (ancient kingdom), a kingdom in Greek antiquity * Macedonia (Greece), a former administr ...
and Pyrrhus of
Epirus Epirus () is a Region#Geographical regions, geographical and historical region, historical region in southeastern Europe, now shared between Greece and Albania. It lies between the Pindus Mountains and the Ionian Sea, stretching from the Bay ...
. The first part of Areus' reign was dominated by the influence of his uncle and regent Cleonymus, a skilled general who campaigned in Greece and abroad at the head of mercenary armies. Areus' first record in the scanty ancient sources took place in 281 BC, when he led an alliance of Greek city-states to challenge
Macedonian Macedonian most often refers to someone or something from or related to Macedonia. Macedonian(s) may refer to: People Modern * Macedonians (ethnic group), a nation and a South Slavic ethnic group primarily associated with North Macedonia * Mac ...
control over Greece, but was rapidly defeated by the Aitolian League (allied with Macedonia). In 275 BC, Cleonymus defected to Pyrrhus of Epirus, who launched an invasion of the Peloponnese in 272 BC. Areus nevertheless repelled the attack and pursued Pyrrhus until his death in
Argos Argos most often refers to: * Argos, Peloponnese, a city in Argolis, Greece * Argus (Greek myth), several characters in Greek mythology * Argos (retailer), a catalogue retailer in the United Kingdom Argos or ARGOS may also refer to: Businesses ...
. Thanks to the prestige of this victory, Areus founded another alliance in 267 BC with
Athens Athens ( ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Greece, largest city of Greece. A significant coastal urban area in the Mediterranean, Athens is also the capital of the Attica (region), Attica region and is the southe ...
and
Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...
against the Macedonian king Antigonos Gonatas. The following
Chremonidean War The Chremonidean War (267–261 BC) was fought by a coalition of Polis, Greek city-states and Ptolemaic Egypt against Antigonid Macedonia. It ended in a Macedonian victory that confirmed Antigonid dynasty, Antigonid control over Greece. The conf ...
was however a disaster for the Greeks; Areus died in battle near
Corinth Corinth ( ; , ) is a municipality in Corinthia in Greece. The successor to the ancient Corinth, ancient city of Corinth, it is a former municipality in Corinthia, Peloponnese (region), Peloponnese, which is located in south-central Greece. Sin ...
in 265 BC. Although the military activity of Areus shows that Sparta had temporarily regained some of its former glory, the main interest of his reign is the introduction of Hellenistic features in the traditionally austere Sparta. For the first time in centuries, prominent artists are found in Sparta—likely attracted by the sponsorship of Areus, who probably built the first theatre of the city. Areus is also known as the king who first minted coins in Sparta, whereas money was hitherto banned. His posture as a Hellenistic king brought him considerable international prestige, but altered the constitutional order of the city, notably by eclipsing kings of the other Spartan dynasty. In order to facilitate his recruitment of Jewish mercenaries, Areus claimed a shared ancestry with the
Jews Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, rel ...
, who answered favourably and later repeatedly renewed their friendship with Sparta, even though the reality of this Spartan-Jewish connection is disputed.


Family background and regency

Areus was the son of Acrotatus, and the grandson of
Cleomenes II Cleomenes II (; died 309 BC) was king of Sparta from 370 to 309 BC. He was the second son of Cleombrotus I, and grandfather of Areus I, who succeeded him. Although he reigned for more than 60 years, his life is completely unknown, apar ...
(), king of Sparta of the
Agiad dynasty The Agiad dynasty (, ''Agiádai'') was one of the two royal families of the ancient Greek city-state of Sparta. They ruled jointly along with the Eurypontid dynasty, possibly from the 8th century BC onwards, being the senior of the two houses. ...
, one of the two royal families at Sparta (the other being the Eurypontids). As Cleomenes' reign was very long, his son Acrotatus died before him, and Areus succeeded his grandfather in about 309.
Karl Julius Beloch Karl Julius Beloch (21 January 1854 – 1 February 1929) was a German classical and economic historian. Biography Born Nieder-Petschkendorf on 21 January 1854, from 1872 to 1875 he studied classical philology and ancient history in Freib ...
has suggested that Areus was born shortly after his father had come back from a mission in
Sicily Sicily (Italian language, Italian and ), officially the Sicilian Region (), is an island in the central Mediterranean Sea, south of the Italian Peninsula in continental Europe and is one of the 20 regions of Italy, regions of Italy. With 4. ...
in 312.
Paul Cartledge Paul Anthony Cartledge (born 24 March 1947)"CARTLEDGE, Prof. Paul Anthony", ''Who's Who 2010'', A & C Black, 2010online edition/ref> is a British ancient historian and academic. From 2008 to 2014 he was the A. G. Leventis Professor of Greek ...
favours an earlier date, about 320. Pausanias, a Greek geographer of the 2nd century AD, as well as
Plutarch Plutarch (; , ''Ploútarchos'', ; – 120s) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo (Delphi), Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for his ''Parallel Lives'', ...
, tell that since Areus was still a young child in 309, Cleomenes' second son Cleonymus contested the claim of his nephew, but the
Gerousia The Gerousia (γερουσία) was the council of elders in ancient Sparta. Sometimes called Spartan senate in the literature, it was made up of the two Spartan kings, plus 28 Spartiates over the age of sixty, known as gerontes. The Gerousia ...
—the supreme assembly at Sparta—still upheld the traditional linear succession of the Spartan kingship, and ruled in favour of Areus.Plutarch, ''Pyrrhus'', 26. However, this story may be a retrojection from Pausanias in light of the later opposition between Areus and Cleonymus. Moreover, succession disputes were normally settled before the ekklesia—the citizen assembly at Sparta—not the Gerousia, as in 400 when
Agesilaus II Agesilaus II (; ; 445/4 – 360/59 BC) was king of Sparta from 400 to 360 BC. Generally considered the most important king in the history of Sparta, Agesilaus was the main actor during the period of Spartan hegemony that followed the Peloponn ...
was chosen king against the initial claim of his nephew Leotychidas. Cleonymus was then made the regent of Areus, thus indicating that he did not challenge the oligarchic order. Cleonymus retained a prominent place during the first half of Areus' reign, commanding mercenary armies with official support, such as in 303, when Sparta sent him to help Tarentum against
Lucanians The Lucanians () were an Italic tribe living in Lucania, in what is now southern Italy, who spoke the Oscan language, a member of the Italic languages. Today, the inhabitants of the Basilicata region are still called Lucani, and so is their d ...
and the
Roman Republic The Roman Republic ( ) was the era of Ancient Rome, classical Roman civilisation beginning with Overthrow of the Roman monarchy, the overthrow of the Roman Kingdom (traditionally dated to 509 BC) and ending in 27 BC with the establis ...
. Pausanias further tells that Cleonymus was given the command of the army as a compensation for his denied claim on the throne, but this is probably another invention as there is nothing unusual for the regent to receive such command. For example, in 479, Pausanias won the
Battle of Plataea The Battle of Plataea was the final land battle during the second Persian invasion of Greece. It took place in 479BC near the city of Plataea in Boeotia, and was fought between an alliance of the Polis, Greek city-states (including Sparta, Cla ...
as regent to his younger cousin
Pleistarchus Pleistarchus ( ; died 458 BC) was the List of kings of Sparta, Agiad King of Sparta from 480 to 458 BC. Biography Pleistarchus was born as a prince, likely the only son of King Leonidas I and Gorgo, Queen of Sparta, Queen Gorgo. His grandpar ...
. Nothing is known of Areus until 281, principally because of the loss of several ancient sources, but also because Sparta was now only a regional power of lesser interest for ancient historians, who did not record its activity.


Reign


Fifth Sacred War (281–280 BC)

In 281–280, the
Wars of the Diadochi The Wars of the Diadochi (, Romanization of Greek, romanized: ', ''War of the Crown Princes'') or Wars of Alexander's Successors were a series of conflicts fought between the generals of Alexander the Great, known as the Diadochi, over who would ...
—the former generals of
Alexander the Great Alexander III of Macedon (; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), most commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the Ancient Greece, ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia (ancient kingdom), Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip ...
—came to an end with the deaths of
Lysimachus Lysimachus (; Greek language, Greek: Λυσίμαχος, ''Lysimachos''; c. 360 BC – 281 BC) was a Thessaly, Thessalian officer and Diadochi, successor of Alexander the Great, who in 306 BC, became king of Thrace, Anatolia, Asia Minor and Mace ...
, king of
Macedonia Macedonia (, , , ), most commonly refers to: * North Macedonia, a country in southeastern Europe, known until 2019 as the Republic of Macedonia * Macedonia (ancient kingdom), a kingdom in Greek antiquity * Macedonia (Greece), a former administr ...
, and
Seleucus Seleucus or Seleukos (Ancient Greek: Σέλευκος) was a Macedonia (ancient kingdom), Macedonian Greek name, possibly meaning "very bright" or “very white”. It is likely related to the ancient name Zaleucus (Ancient Greek language, Ancient ...
, founder of the
Seleucid Empire The Seleucid Empire ( ) was a Greek state in West Asia during the Hellenistic period. It was founded in 312 BC by the Macedonian general Seleucus I Nicator, following the division of the Macedonian Empire founded by Alexander the Great ...
. In Greece, many cities immediately attempted to recover their independence from the new Macedonian king Antigonos Gonatas, and Sparta is found leading allies for the first time since the defeat of
Agis III Agis III (Ancient Greek, Greek: , died 331 BC) was the eldest son of Archidamus III, and the 21st Eurypontid king of Sparta between 338 and 331 BC. He tried to lead a revolt against Macedonia (ancient kingdom), Macedonian hegemony over Greece, but ...
at
Megalopolis A megalopolis () or a supercity, also called a megaregion, is a group of metropolitan areas which are perceived as a continuous urban area through common systems of transport, economy, resources, ecology, and so on. They are integrated enough ...
in 331. Sparta did not frontally attack Macedonia though, targeting instead its weaker ally, the Aitolian League, which had taken control of the Panhellenic sanctuary of
Delphi Delphi (; ), in legend previously called Pytho (Πυθώ), was an ancient sacred precinct and the seat of Pythia, the major oracle who was consulted about important decisions throughout the ancient Classical antiquity, classical world. The A ...
a few years before. Since the
Second Sacred War The Second Sacred War was the Spartan defeat of the Phocis (ancient region), Phocians at Delphi and the restoration of Delphian self-government. Background In 458 or 457BC, the Phocians captured three towns in the Spartan metropolis of Doris ...
in the 440s, Sparta had assumed the role of Delphi's protector and Areus denounced the profanation of sacred soil by the Aitolians. The attack on the Aitolian League may have been determined by the impossibility of passing through the
Isthmus of Corinth The Isthmus of Corinth ( Greek: Ισθμός της Κορίνθου) is the narrow land bridge which connects the Peloponnese peninsula with the rest of the mainland of Greece, near the city of Corinth. The wide Isthmus was known in the a ...
, which was heavily garrisoned by Macedonia (in the Acrocorinth fortress); Areus' plan was possibly to win a victory against the Aitolians, then attack Corinth from both the north and south. This war is sometimes called the Fifth Sacred War by modern scholars, named after the other Sacred Wars for the control of Delphi. Areus was chosen by several other states to lead the alliance against the Aitolians, perhaps because the campaigns of Cleonymus made a good impression, and Sparta was seen as producing capable commanders again. Modern historians however disagree on the extent of this alliance as most of this war is known from
Justin Justin may refer to: People and fictional characters * Justin (given name), including a list of people and fictional characters with the given name * Justin (historian), Latin historian who lived under the Roman Empire * Justin I (c. 450–527) ...
, a Roman historian of the 2nd century AD, whose account is very short. The only certain allies of Sparta were the four Achaian cities of
Patrai Patras (; ; Katharevousa and ; ) is Greece's List of cities in Greece, third-largest city and the regional capital and largest city of Western Greece, in the northern Peloponnese, west of Athens. The city is built at the foot of Mount Panachaiko ...
,
Tritaia Tritaia () is a former Communities and Municipalities of Greece, municipality in Achaea, West Greece, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Erymanthos (municipality), Erymanthos, of which it is a municipal ...
, Dyme and Pharai (which soon after founded the Achaian League), and most of the Arcadians (without
Megalopolis A megalopolis () or a supercity, also called a megaregion, is a group of metropolitan areas which are perceived as a continuous urban area through common systems of transport, economy, resources, ecology, and so on. They are integrated enough ...
), because Areus would not have been able to cross the Peloponnese to Aitolia without their support.Kralli, ''The Hellenistic Peloponnese'', p. 118. Other possible allies were
Megara Megara (; , ) is a historic town and a municipality in West Attica, Greece. It lies in the northern section of the Isthmus of Corinth opposite the island of Salamis Island, Salamis, which belonged to Megara in archaic times, before being taken ...
,
Boeotia Boeotia ( ), sometimes Latinisation of names, Latinized as Boiotia or Beotia (; modern Greek, modern: ; ancient Greek, ancient: ), is one of the regional units of Greece. It is part of the modern regions of Greece, region of Central Greece (adm ...
,
Argos Argos most often refers to: * Argos, Peloponnese, a city in Argolis, Greece * Argus (Greek myth), several characters in Greek mythology * Argos (retailer), a catalogue retailer in the United Kingdom Argos or ARGOS may also refer to: Businesses ...
,
Epidauros Epidaurus () was a small city (''polis'') in ancient Greece, on the Argolid Peninsula at the Saronic Gulf. Two modern towns bear the name Epidavros: '' Palaia Epidavros'' and '' Nea Epidavros''. Since 2010 they belong to the new municipality of ...
,
Elis Elis also known as Ellis or Ilia (, ''Eleia'') is a historic region in the western part of the Peloponnese peninsula of Greece. It is administered as a regional unit of the modern region of Western Greece. Its capital is Pyrgos. Until 2011 it ...
,
Athens Athens ( ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Greece, largest city of Greece. A significant coastal urban area in the Mediterranean, Athens is also the capital of the Attica (region), Attica region and is the southe ...
and Western
Crete Crete ( ; , Modern Greek, Modern: , Ancient Greek, Ancient: ) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the List of islands by area, 88th largest island in the world and the List of islands in the Mediterranean#By area, fifth la ...
, but the state of evidence is very thin. Areus then crossed the
Corinthian Gulf The Gulf of Corinth or the Corinthian Gulf (, ) is a deep inlet of the Ionian Sea, separating the Peloponnese from western mainland Greece. It is bounded in the east by the Isthmus of Corinth which includes the shipping-designed Corinth Canal and ...
and landed in the Kirrhan plain, in the southwest of Delphi. Despite posturing as the liberator of Delphi's sacred land, Areus let his soldiers disperse to plunder the area; as a result, the Aitolians inflicted a resounding defeat on Areus' scattered army, although the figures cited by Justin are improbable: he says that 500 Aitolians killed 9000 Spartans and allies.Cartledge, ''Hellenistic and Roman Sparta'', p. 29. In fact, Areus might have commanded 3,000 men at most. The Spartans likely buried their dead on the spot, either in a polyandrion near Delphi, or in a place called Lakonikon in the Kirrhan plain. The new alliance collapsed following Areus' defeat, likely because his military leadership was by now discredited. Another possibility is that as Antigonos Gonatas was far away campaigning in Asia, the Peloponnesians did not feel threatened enough to stay in the alliance.


The defection of Cleonymus (275 BC)

After the defeat of Areus, military operations were headed by Cleonymus again. He is recorded in 279 campaigning against
Messenia Messenia or Messinia ( ; ) is a regional unit (''perifereiaki enotita'') in the southwestern part of the Peloponnese region, in Greece. Until the implementation of the Kallikratis plan on 1 January 2011, Messenia was a prefecture (''nomos' ...
, which prevented them from sending aid to the Aitolians, who were facing an invasion of Gallic tribes. Sparta recovered the border area of Denthaliates, which had been lost after the
Battle of Leuctra The Battle of Leuctra (, ) was fought on 6 July 371 BC between the Boeotians led by the Thebes (Greece), Thebans, and the History of Sparta, Spartans along with their allies amidst the post–Corinthian War conflict. The battle took place in the ...
in 371. Between 279 and 276, Cleonymus took the Macedonian garrison of
Troezen Troezen (; ancient Greek: Τροιζήν, modern Greek: Τροιζήνα ) is a small town and a former municipality in the northeastern Peloponnese, Greece, on the Argolid Peninsula. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the munic ...
in the
Argolis Argolis or Argolida ( , ; , in ancient Greek and Katharevousa) is one of the regional units of Greece. It is part of the modern regions of Greece, region of Peloponnese (region), Peloponnese, situated in the eastern part of the Peloponnese penin ...
and is also mentioned in
Crete Crete ( ; , Modern Greek, Modern: , Ancient Greek, Ancient: ) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the List of islands by area, 88th largest island in the world and the List of islands in the Mediterranean#By area, fifth la ...
, acting as peacemaker between the cities of Polyrrennia and
Phalasarna Falasarna or Phalasarna () is a Greek harbour town at the west end of Crete that flourished during the Hellenistic period. The currently visible remains of the city include several imposing sandstone towers and bastions, with hundreds of meters ...
. This policy of intervening into Cretan affairs was continued by Areus, as Polyrrennia later built a statue in his honour. The island produced a lot of mercenaries, on which Sparta relied for its operations. Crete was furthermore one of the few places where Sparta could extend its influence without angering any of the big three Hellenistic kingdoms (Macedonian,
Ptolemaic Ptolemaic is the adjective formed from the name Ptolemy, and may refer to: Pertaining to the Ptolemaic dynasty *Ptolemaic dynasty, the Macedonian Greek dynasty that ruled Egypt founded in 305 BC by Ptolemy I Soter *Ptolemaic Kingdom Pertaining t ...
, and
Seleucid The Seleucid Empire ( ) was a Greek state in West Asia during the Hellenistic period. It was founded in 312 BC by the Macedonian general Seleucus I Nicator, following the division of the Macedonian Empire founded by Alexander the Great, a ...
). Cleonymus was therefore given all the military commands between 279 and 275, probably because he was seen as more capable than Areus following the king's defeat against the Aitolians, a situation that must have concerned Areus. In addition, Plutarch tells that Cleonymus married a much younger woman named Chilonis, who was the daughter of a Leotychidas, a name commonly found in the Eurypontid dynasty, the other royal family of Sparta. As daughters could inherit property in Sparta, Chilonis was a particularly attractive bride, because of her royal descent and wealth. It shows that Cleonymus tried to get closer to the other king,
Archidamus IV Archidamus IV () was Eurypontid king of Sparta from 300 BC to 275 BC. An obscure king, Archidamus is only known for his defeat against the Macedonian king Demetrius Poliorketes at Mantinea in 294, where he might have also died since nothing i ...
, and therefore enhance his status within Sparta. However, Areus sent his son Acrotatus to seduce Chilonis in order to thwart the political ambitions of his uncle Cleonymus. In 275, angered Cleonymus left Sparta and went into exile in
Epirus Epirus () is a Region#Geographical regions, geographical and historical region, historical region in southeastern Europe, now shared between Greece and Albania. It lies between the Pindus Mountains and the Ionian Sea, stretching from the Bay ...
, as he had been familiar with its king Pyhrrus since his command in Italy in 303.


War against Pyrrhus (272 BC)

In 275 Pyrrhus had just come back from
Magna Graecia Magna Graecia refers to the Greek-speaking areas of southern Italy, encompassing the modern Regions of Italy, Italian regions of Calabria, Apulia, Basilicata, Campania, and Sicily. These regions were Greek colonisation, extensively settled by G ...
after an unsuccessful expedition against the Roman Republic and
Carthage Carthage was an ancient city in Northern Africa, on the eastern side of the Lake of Tunis in what is now Tunisia. Carthage was one of the most important trading hubs of the Ancient Mediterranean and one of the most affluent cities of the classic ...
. Plutarch and Pausanias tell that Cleonymus fled to Pyrrhus in order to request his help to become king of Sparta, but this is unlikely, as Pyrrhus' campaign against Sparta only dates from 272. Pyrrhus' first confrontation was instead against Antigonos Gonatas, as he coveted the Macedonian throne, during which he gave Cleonymus the important command of the Epirote
phalanx The phalanx (: phalanxes or phalanges) was a rectangular mass military formation, usually composed entirely of heavy infantry armed with spears, pikes, sarissas, or similar polearms tightly packed together. The term is particularly used t ...
. Clenoymus notably captured Aigai, the historical capital of Macedonia, in 274. In 272, Pyrrhus assembled a large army of 25,000 foot soldiers, 2,000 cavalry, and 24 elephants, and moved to the Peloponnese. His plan was to take the whole region in order to further weaken Gonatas, while giving Sparta to his friend Cleonymus. The Aitolian League, which had abandoned Gonatas, let him pass through its territory.Cartledge, ''Hellenistic and Roman Sparta'', p. 30. He likewise received the support of the Achaian League, on the other side of the Corinthian Gulf, as well as Elis, and then settled in Megalopolis, another new ally, where he received embassies from multiple states, notably Argos, which had a strong pro-Pyrrhus faction. Pyrrhus disguised his real intentions to the Spartans, by assuring them that his only ambition was to remove Gonatas' influence from the Peloponnese, and to bring his young sons to Sparta so they could be trained in the
Agoge The ( in Attic Greek, or , in Doric Greek) was the training program prerequisite for Spartiate (citizen) status. Spartiate-class boys entered it at age seven, and would stop being a student of the agoge at age 21. It was considered violent by ...
. The Spartans were therefore completely caught off-guard when Pyrrhus attacked them and besieged their city, as Areus was campaigning in Crete, supporting
Gortyn Gortyn, Gortys or Gortyna (, , or , ) is a municipality, and an archaeological site, on the Mediterranean island of Crete away from the island's capital, Heraklion. The seat of the municipality is the village Agioi Deka. Gortyn was the Roman c ...
in a war against
Knossos Knossos (; , ; Linear B: ''Ko-no-so'') is a Bronze Age archaeological site in Crete. The site was a major centre of the Minoan civilization and is known for its association with the Greek myth of Theseus and the minotaur. It is located on th ...
. Surprisingly, Sparta received help from Messena. Although its inhabitants had been Spartan
helots The helots (; , ''heílotes'') were a subjugated population that constituted a majority of the population of Laconia and Messenia – the territories ruled by Sparta. There has been controversy since antiquity as to their exact characteristic ...
before the Battle of Leuctra, relationships between the two cities considerably improved during the third century, as evidences show ties between respective aristocrats. Even more unexpected is the help sent by Gonatas, who in fact feared that Pyrrhus would be able to challenge his throne if he took the whole Peloponnese. As a result, thanks to the Macedonian mercenaries headed by Ameinias the Phocian, Pyrrhus had to raise the
siege of Sparta The siege of Sparta took place in 272 BC and was a battle fought between Epirus (ancient state), Epirus, led by King Pyrrhus of Epirus, Pyrrhus, ( 297–272 BC) and an alliance consisting of History of Sparta, Sparta, under the command of King A ...
. He then ravaged southern Laconia, but retreated to Argos in order to support his faction in the civil war that had just broken out in this city. However, Areus, who had landed in Laconia with a thousand Cretan mercenaries, organised ambushes against Pyrrhus' army; one of which was fatal to
Ptolemy Claudius Ptolemy (; , ; ; – 160s/170s AD) was a Greco-Roman mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer, and music theorist who wrote about a dozen scientific treatises, three of which were important to later Byzantine science, Byzant ...
, one of Pyrrhus' sons. The final battle took place in Argos, where Pyrrhus was killed during streetfighting against the armies of Areus and Gonatas. Although he had taken the city of
Zarax Zarax () or Zarex (Ζάρηξ) was a town on the eastern coast of ancient Laconia, with a good harbour, situated upon a promontory, which is a projection of Mount Zarax. Like Prasiae and some other places on this part of the Laconian coast, it pa ...
, in the southeastern Peloponnese, Cleonymus had to go into exile after the death of Pyrrhus, likely in
Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...
.


Chremonidean War (267–265 BC)

The victory against Pyrrhus increased Areus' prestige on the international stage, which turned Sparta into a regional power again. Areus became one of the leaders of a new coalition with Athens directed against Macedonia.Marasco, ''Sparta'', p. 142. As both Athens and Sparta had been allied with Egypt before concluding an alliance between them, it seems that the initiative came from
Ptolemy II Ptolemy II Philadelphus (, ''Ptolemaîos Philádelphos'', "Ptolemy, sibling-lover"; 309 – 28 January 246 BC) was the pharaoh of Ptolemaic Egypt from 284 to 246 BC. He was the son of Ptolemy I, the Macedonian Greek general of Alexander the G ...
, who was an enemy of Gonatas and had tried to get a foothold in mainland Greece. Dated from 268 to 267, the text of the Athenian decree sealing the alliance with Sparta is still extent, and is the major source of these otherwise poorly documented events. The Athenian leader behind this alliance was Chremonides—after whom the subsequent war is named—who compared the alliance with Sparta and against Macedonia to the Greek coalition against the Persian emperor Xerxes in 480. Athens had no other ally, but Sparta is described as bringing its own allies into the coalition. Elis, Achaia, and five Arcadian cities (
Tegea Tegea (; ) was a settlement in ancient Arcadia, and it is also a former municipality in Arcadia, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the Tripoli municipality, of which it is a municipal unit with an area o ...
,
Mantineia Mantinea (; ''Mantineia''; also Koine Greek ''Antigoneia'') was a city in ancient Arcadia, Greece, which was the site of two significant battles in Classical Greek history. In modern times it is a former municipality in Arcadia, Peloponnese, ...
, Orchomenos,
Phigalia Phigalia or Phigaleia or Phigalea ( or ΦιγαλέαSo in Polybius, '' The Histories, iv. 3.'' or Φιγάλεια or ΦιγαλίαSo in Pausanias), also known as Phialia (Φιαλία or Φιάλεια), was an ancient Greek city in the south-w ...
, and Kaphyae) are cited; Corinth, Argos, and Megalopolis remained on the side of Gonatas, Messenia was neutral. This set of Spartan allies has been described as a revival of the
Peloponnesian League The Peloponnesian League () was an alliance of ancient Greek city-states, dominated by Sparta and centred on the Peloponnese, which lasted from c. 550 to 366 BC. It is known mainly for being one of the two rivals in the Peloponnesian War (431–4 ...
, which used to be the instrument of Sparta's supremacy over southern Greece until its disbandment in 338, although this time Sparta did not dominate its allies. Areus' alliance looked very similar to the alliance set by king
Agis III Agis III (Ancient Greek, Greek: , died 331 BC) was the eldest son of Archidamus III, and the 21st Eurypontid king of Sparta between 338 and 331 BC. He tried to lead a revolt against Macedonia (ancient kingdom), Macedonian hegemony over Greece, but ...
in 331 before the
Battle of Megalopolis The Battle of Megalopolis was fought in 331 BC between Spartan-led forces and Macedonia. Alexander's regent Antipater led the Macedonians to victory over King Agis III. Alexander, warring in Asia at the time, called it a "battle of mice" (), acc ...
, showing the enduring support enjoyed by Sparta in the Peloponnese.Marasco, ''Sparta'', p. 141. Areus also counted several allies in Crete: Polyrrenia, Phalasarna,
Gortyn Gortyn, Gortys or Gortyna (, , or , ) is a municipality, and an archaeological site, on the Mediterranean island of Crete away from the island's capital, Heraklion. The seat of the municipality is the village Agioi Deka. Gortyn was the Roman c ...
,
Itanos Itanos () is a municipal unit (demotike enoteta) of the municipality (demos) Siteia in the Lasithi regional unit, eastern Crete, Greece. A former municipality itself, it was included in Siteia as part of the 2011 local government reform. The muni ...
,
Olous Olous or Olus (, or ''Stadiasmus Maris Magni'' § 350.) was a city of ancient Crete; now sunken, it was situated at the site of present day town of Elounda, Crete, Greece. According to the ''Stadiasmus Maris Magni'', it had a harbour and was locat ...
, Aptera,
Rhithymna Rhithymna or Rithymna () or Rhithymnia (Ῥιθυμνία), was a town of ancient Crete, Greece, which is mentioned by Ptolemy and Pliny the Elder as the first town on the north coast to the east of Amphimalla, and is spoken of as a Cretan city by ...
, and
Lyttos Lyktos (Greek: or ) was a city in ancient Crete. During the Classical and Roman periods, it was one of the major settlements on the island. Its ruins are located near the modern-day village of Lyttos in the municipality of Minoa Pediada, He ...
, while Knossos might have joined later. Ptolemy brought his massive fleet to the alliance, as well as military subsidies, which enabled the allies to enlist mercenaries. Areus' army indeed counted numerous mercenaries from his Cretan allies, and from the reopening of the large mercenary market of Tainaron, located on the middle prong of the Peloponnese. The Chremonidean War started in 267–266, but its development is obscure as it is one of the least known wars of Greek history, with only short mentions by Justin and Pausanias. Despite the large number of participants, the anti-Macedonian alliance suffered from the isolation of its individual members, while Gonatas' territories formed one block. Furthermore, Gonatas still had control of the Athenian harbour of
Piraeus Piraeus ( ; ; , Ancient: , Katharevousa: ) is a port city within the Athens urban area ("Greater Athens"), in the Attica region of Greece. It is located southwest of Athens city centre along the east coast of the Saronic Gulf in the Ath ...
, which equated to a permanent siege of Athens. Ptolemy helped Athens by sending his admiral Patroklos, but his forces were not sufficient to dislodge Gonatas from Piraeus, although he built several forts on the shore of
Attica Attica (, ''Attikḗ'' (Ancient Greek) or , or ), or the Attic Peninsula, is a historical region that encompasses the entire Athens metropolitan area, which consists of the city of Athens, the capital city, capital of Greece and the core cit ...
. The outcome of the war therefore depended on Areus, who apparently passed the Isthmus of Corinth unhindered during the first year of the war, but then could not join with Patroklos because Gonatas had built a wall in Attica to block him. He returned home once his supplies ran out. Gonatas then garrisoned the wall on the Isthmus to prevent Areus from passing through, which he tried to do one or two times (in the years 266–265 and/or 265–264). In about 265, a battle took place near Corinth between the bulk of Gonatas' army and that of Areus, in which the latter was killed, and apparently a lot of his troops as well, because Sparta is not found attacking the isthmus again. Gonatas had not been able to concentrate his troops against Areus the previous year because of a short-lived revolt of his Gallic mercenaries in
Megara Megara (; , ) is a historic town and a municipality in West Attica, Greece. It lies in the northern section of the Isthmus of Corinth opposite the island of Salamis Island, Salamis, which belonged to Megara in archaic times, before being taken ...
. Despite the death of Areus, Athens held out until its surrender in 263–262, thus concluding Gonatas' victory. Areus was succeeded by his son Acrotatus, who died soon after before the walls of Megalopolis, likely in 262.


A Hellenistic king

While the Spartan kingship had been an anachronism in
Classical Greece Classical Greece was a period of around 200 years (the 5th and 4th centuries BC) in ancient Greece,The "Classical Age" is "the modern designation of the period from about 500 B.C. to the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C." ( Thomas R. Mar ...
(5th and 4th centuries BC), monarchy became the prevalent form of government during the Hellenistic era.Walthall, "Becoming Kings", p. 131. Areus' rule as king shows that he tried to emulate the Hellenistic monarchs, who by now ruled the Greek world, at the expense of the ancestral
Spartan constitution The Spartan Constitution (or Spartan politeia) are the government and laws of the Classical Greece, classical Greek city-state of Sparta. All classical Greek city-states had a politeia; the politeia of Sparta however, was noted by many classica ...
written by
Lycurgus Lycurgus (; ) was the legendary lawgiver of Sparta, credited with the formation of its (), involving political, economic, and social reforms to produce a military-oriented Spartan society in accordance with the Delphic oracle. The Spartans i ...
. Although Sparta was a
diarchy Diarchy (from Greek , ''di-'', "double", and , ''-arkhía'', "ruled"),Occasionally spelled ''dyarchy'', as in the ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' article on the colonial British institution duarchy, or duumvirate. is a form of government charac ...
, with two kings of equal powers, Areus completely eclipsed the kings of the Eurypontid dynasty.Walthall, "Becoming Kings", p. 132. Nothing is known of Areus' co-king Archidamus IV after his defeat against Demetrios Poliorketes in 294, and Archidamus' son
Eudamidas II Eudamidus II () was the 24th King of Sparta of the Eurypontid dynasty. He was the son of King Archidamus IV, nephew of Agesistrata and grandson of Eudamidas I and Archidamia. He ruled from 275 BC to 244 BC. He married his aunt, Agesistra ...
is the most obscure of all the Spartan kings; the dates of their reign are highly conjectural. The Eurypontids were also denied any military command; even when Pyrrhus attacked Sparta while Areus was away, the defence of the city was entrusted to Areus' young son Akrotatus. In the engraved Athenian decree forging the alliance with Sparta before the Chremonidean War, Areus is mentioned by name five times, while his co-king is absent, therefore showing that for the Athenians, Areus was the sole ruler of Sparta. The most striking feature of this new era is the introduction of coinage in Sparta. The use of coins had been allegedly banned since the time of Lycurgus because money was seen as a source of greed and corruption. Areus' first coins were tetradrachms of the Athenian standard, featuring the head of young
Herakles Heracles ( ; ), born Alcaeus (, ''Alkaios'') or Alcides (, ''Alkeidēs''), was a divine hero in Greek mythology, the son of ZeusApollodorus1.9.16/ref> and Alcmene, and the foster son of Amphitryon.By his adoptive descent through Amphitr ...
and Zeus seated on a throne, which at the time formed the common imagery on the coins of Alexander the Great and all his successors. The legend reads "King Areus" (''Basileos Areos'') without mentioning the other king or even the city of Sparta, but is very similar to the coins of the Diadochi. Several dates have been suggested for the production of these tetradrachms, but recent studies support a date at the beginning of the Chremonidean War in order to pay the vast number of mercenaries hired by Areus. They were probably minted outside Sparta, perhaps near Corinth. Areus also produced a second series of smaller coins, which were more likely intended for local circulation within Sparta. These obols feature the head of Herakles and his club, alluding to their ancestry. The Spartan kings were indeed the last of the
Heracleidae The Heracleidae (; ) or Heraclids were the numerous descendants of Heracles, especially applied in a narrower sense to the descendants of Hyllus, the eldest of his four sons by Deianira (Hyllus was also sometimes thought of as Heracles' son ...
—the descendants of Herakles—following the extinction of the
Argead dynasty The Argead dynasty (), also known as the Temenid dynasty (, ''Tēmenídai'') was an Ancient Macedonians, ancient Macedonian royal house of Dorians, Dorian Greek provenance. They were the founders and the ruling dynasty of the kingdom of Macedoni ...
of Macedonia in 309 BC, an important source of prestige within the Greek world. Imitating the Ptolemies and Seleucids, Areus furthermore initiated a royal patronage of the arts. c.270 a Spartan comic actor named Nicon won a prize at the Soteria festival in Delphi, which would have been unthinkable in the Classical era, when theatre was held great contempt by the Spartans. Paul Cartledge thinks the first theatre of Sparta was precisely built during his reign. In the 280s or 270s Areus hired the sculptor
Eutychides Eutychides (, ) of Sicyon in Corinthia, Greek sculptor of the early part of the 3rd century BC, was a pupil of Lysippus.Ogden, ''The Legend of Seleucus'', p. 136. His most noted work was a statue of the Tyche of Antioch, a goddess who embodied t ...
of
Sikyon Sicyon (; ; ''gen''.: Σικυῶνος) or Sikyōn was an ancient Greek city state situated in the northern Peloponnesus between Corinth and Achaea on the territory of the present-day regional unit of Corinthia. The ruins lie just west of the ...
to create an allegory of the
Eurotas river The Evrotas (Modern Greek: ) or Eurotas () is the main river of Laconia and one of the major rivers of the Peloponnese, in Greece. The river's springs are located just northwest of the border between Laconia and Arcadia, at Skortsinos. The rive ...
, which was praised by
Pliny the Elder Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/24 79), known in English as Pliny the Elder ( ), was a Roman Empire, Roman author, Natural history, naturalist, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the Roman emperor, emperor Vesp ...
and perhaps copied as far as Salamis in
Cyprus Cyprus (), officially the Republic of Cyprus, is an island country in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Situated in West Asia, its cultural identity and geopolitical orientation are overwhelmingly Southeast European. Cyprus is the List of isl ...
. Eutychides possibly made another statue of Herakles seated and reclining on his mace, because the tyrant
Nabis Nabis may refer to: * Nabis of Sparta, reigned 207–192 BCE * Nabis (art), a Parisian post-Impressionist artistic group * ''Nabis'' (bug), a genus of insects * NABIS, National Ballistics Intelligence Service, a British government agency See a ...
later used this scene typical of Eutychides on his coins. Under Areus, the
syssitia The syssitia ( ''syssítia'', plural of ''syssítion'') were, in ancient Greece, common meals for men and youths in social or religious groups, especially in Crete and Sparta, but also in Megara in the time of Theognis of Megara (sixth century ...
—Spartan collective messes—evolved into spectacular banquets.Walthall, "Becoming Kings", p. 131. The development of
mosaics A mosaic () is a pattern or image made of small regular or irregular pieces of colored stone, glass or ceramic, held in place by plaster/Mortar (masonry), mortar, and covering a surface. Mosaics are often used as floor and wall decoration, and ...
in Sparta can furthermore be dated from his reign, as they decorated banquet rooms. Another aspect of Areus' innovativeness was the promotion of his image. He was honoured by an important number of statues, more than any other Spartan king, while a century earlier Agesilaus II had always refused to be portrayed. Pausanias describes three of his statues at the Sanctuary of Olympia. One was dedicated by Ptolemy II and likely placed next to a statue of
Ptolemy I Ptolemy I Soter (; , ''Ptolemaîos Sōtḗr'', "Ptolemy the Savior"; 367 BC – January 282 BC) was a Macedonian Greek general, historian, and successor of Alexander the Great who went on to found the Ptolemaic Kingdom centered on Egypt. Pt ...
and other Diadochi; a second one was an equestrian monument, typical of the new era; the third was dedicated by the city of Elis, another ally of Sparta. Outside Olympia, two statues have also been found in cities allied with Sparta: Arkadian Orchomenos and Polyrrhenia in Crete. Areus' goals behind this transformation of his role as Spartan king was to picture himself as the peer of the massively more powerful Hellenistic kings.Walthall, "Becoming Kings", p. 132. Although he still retained the constitutional framework of Sparta, Areus' enhancement of his kingship dangerously shook the institutional balance in the city, which later lead to the abolition of dyarchy and the reduction the ephorate and
Gerousia The Gerousia (γερουσία) was the council of elders in ancient Sparta. Sometimes called Spartan senate in the literature, it was made up of the two Spartan kings, plus 28 Spartiates over the age of sixty, known as gerontes. The Gerousia ...
under Kleomenes III and
Nabis Nabis may refer to: * Nabis of Sparta, reigned 207–192 BCE * Nabis (art), a Parisian post-Impressionist artistic group * ''Nabis'' (bug), a genus of insects * NABIS, National Ballistics Intelligence Service, a British government agency See a ...
.


Areus and the Jews

Areus makes a surprising appearance in the ancient Jewish literature. The First Book of the Maccabees first reproduces a letter sent by Areus to the
High Priest The term "high priest" usually refers either to an individual who holds the office of ruler-priest, or to one who is the head of a religious organisation. Ancient Egypt In ancient Egypt, a high priest was the chief priest of any of the many god ...
Onias I Onias I (Hebrew language, Hebrew: חוניו ; ''Honiyya'' or ''Honio ben Jaddua'') was the son of the Jaddua mentioned in Nehemiah. According to Josephus, this Jaddua is said to have been a contemporary of Alexander the Great (reigned 336–323 BC ...
, then a letter from the High Priest Jonathan c.144, and a third dated c.142 from the Spartans to Simon, Jonathan's successor.
Flavius Josephus Flavius Josephus (; , ; ), born Yosef ben Mattityahu (), was a History of the Jews in the Roman Empire, Roman–Jewish historian and military leader. Best known for writing ''The Jewish War'', he was born in Jerusalem—then part of the Judaea ...
, a Jewish historian of the 1st century AD, also refers to these letters, which all establish and renew friendship ties between Sparta and Judea. Both sources describe Areus as a friend of the Jews, who claimed a common ancestry between Jews and Spartans, said to be "brothers" and descendants of
Abraham Abraham (originally Abram) is the common Hebrews, Hebrew Patriarchs (Bible), patriarch of the Abrahamic religions, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. In Judaism, he is the founding father who began the Covenant (biblical), covenanta ...
. This puzzling connection between a Greek state and a people subject of Ptolemaic Egypt has attracted considerable attention among modern scholars. Already in 1934 Michael Ginsburg noted that "it is a hard and ungrateful task to wade through the vast literature dealing with this problem". The core of the academic debate is whether the letters reproduced in ''I Maccabees'' are forgeries. The growing majority view has been to consider them authentic, with some elaborations from the authors of ''I Maccabees'' and Josephus, although the minority—or sceptical—view remains important. The main argument in favour of the authenticity of Areus' letter is that he was much less famous than other Spartan kings of the Hellenistic era, such as
Agis III Agis III (Ancient Greek, Greek: , died 331 BC) was the eldest son of Archidamus III, and the 21st Eurypontid king of Sparta between 338 and 331 BC. He tried to lead a revolt against Macedonia (ancient kingdom), Macedonian hegemony over Greece, but ...
or Kleomenes III. A forger would presumably have picked an universally known figure. A forger would have also not failed to mention the
ephors The ephors were a board of five magistrates in ancient Sparta. They had an extensive range of judicial, religious, legislative, and military powers, and could shape Sparta's home and foreign affairs. The word "''ephors''" (Ancient Greek ''éph ...
—the main magistrates at Sparta—while their absence in the letter fits well with Areus' autocratic tendencies. It seems that the letter was originally written in
Aramaic Aramaic (; ) is a Northwest Semitic language that originated in the ancient region of Syria and quickly spread to Mesopotamia, the southern Levant, Sinai, southeastern Anatolia, and Eastern Arabia, where it has been continually written a ...
; its wording also shows that Areus was well aware of Jewish customs. A Greek writer contemporary of Areus,
Hecataeus of Abdera Hecataeus (Greek: Ἑκαταῖος) is a Greek name shared by several historical figures: * Hecataeus of Miletus Hecataeus of Miletus (; ; c. 550 – c. 476 BC), son of Hegesander, was an early Greek historian and geographer. Bio ...
, precisely published a work on the Jews, where he told that the Greek heroes Cadmeus and
Danaos In Greek mythology, Danaus (, ; ''Danaós'') was the king of Libya. His myth is a foundation legend of Argos, one of the foremost Mycenaean cities of the Peloponnesus. In Homer's ''Iliad'', " Danaans" ("tribe of Danaus") and "Argives" common ...
were expelled from Egypt at the same time as the Jews. As Danaos was an ancestor of Heracles and therefore the Spartans, it may be the origin for the claim of the kinship between Spartans and Jews. The most common explanation of Areus' claim of such kinship was his need to hire mercenaries, since Jews were known to be good soldiers. The Jewish-Spartan connection was repeated by the High Priest
Jason Jason ( ; ) was an ancient Greek mythological hero and leader of the Argonauts, whose quest for the Golden Fleece is featured in Greek literature. He was the son of Aeson, the rightful king of Iolcos. He was married to the sorceress Med ...
, who attempted to seek shelter to Sparta in 168.
Erich Gruen Erich Stephen Gruen ( , ; born May 7, 1935) is an American classicist and ancient historian. He was the Gladys Rehard Wood Professor of History and Classics at the University of California, Berkeley, where he taught full-time from 1966 until 2008 ...
has been the most vocal critic of the authenticity of Areus' letter. He considers that Areus would have not engaged in independent diplomacy with the Jews, as they were the subjects of his ally Ptolemy II. He adds that Areus would not have needed to highlight his alleged descent from Abraham to hire Jewish mercenaries. The language of the letter is furthermore "suspiciously biblical" ("ours are yours"), which would not have been written by a Greek. Gruen thinks instead that this correspondence is a Jewish invention, which results from the need for them to find their place in the new Hellenistic order that followed the conquest of the
Persian Empire The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenian Empire, also known as the Persian Empire or First Persian Empire (; , , ), was an Iranian empire founded by Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid dynasty in 550 BC. Based in modern-day Iran, it was the larg ...
by Alexander the Great. He writes that "the Jews attempted to assimilate Greeks into their own tradition", by crafting a kinship with Areus and Sparta, which were still held in high regard by the Greeks of the second century BC, when ''I Maccabees'' was written.Gruen, "The Purported Jewish-Spartan Affiliation", pp. 260, 261, 264.


References


Bibliography


Ancient sources

*
Diodorus Siculus Diodorus Siculus or Diodorus of Sicily (;  1st century BC) was an ancient Greece, ancient Greek historian from Sicily. He is known for writing the monumental Universal history (genre), universal history ''Bibliotheca historica'', in forty ...
, ''
Bibliotheca Historica ''Bibliotheca historica'' (, ) is a work of Universal history (genre), universal history by Diodorus Siculus. It consisted of forty books, which were divided into three sections. The first six books are geographical in theme, and describe the h ...
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Justin Justin may refer to: People and fictional characters * Justin (given name), including a list of people and fictional characters with the given name * Justin (historian), Latin historian who lived under the Roman Empire * Justin I (c. 450–527) ...
, ''
Historia Philippicae et Totius Mundi Origines et Terrae Situs The ''Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus'' (Latin ''Epitoma Historiarum Philippicarum Pompei Trogi'') by the second-century Roman writer Justin is an abridgment of the Augustan historian Pompeius Trogus' lengthy work the ''Histo ...
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Pliny the Elder Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/24 79), known in English as Pliny the Elder ( ), was a Roman Empire, Roman author, Natural history, naturalist, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the Roman emperor, emperor Vesp ...
, '' Historia Naturalis''. *
Plutarch Plutarch (; , ''Ploútarchos'', ; – 120s) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo (Delphi), Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for his ''Parallel Lives'', ...
, ''
Moralia The ''Moralia'' (Latin for "Morals", "Customs" or "Mores"; , ''Ethiká'') is a set of essays ascribed to the 1st-century scholar Plutarch of Chaeronea. The eclectic collection contains 78 essays and transcribed speeches. They provide insigh ...
'', ''
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''.


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Karl Julius Beloch Karl Julius Beloch (21 January 1854 – 1 February 1929) was a German classical and economic historian. Biography Born Nieder-Petschkendorf on 21 January 1854, from 1872 to 1875 he studied classical philology and ancient history in Freib ...
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Paul Cartledge Paul Anthony Cartledge (born 24 March 1947)"CARTLEDGE, Prof. Paul Anthony", ''Who's Who 2010'', A & C Black, 2010online edition/ref> is a British ancient historian and academic. From 2008 to 2014 he was the A. G. Leventis Professor of Greek ...
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Dorothy J. Thompson Dorothy Joan Thompson, (born 31 May 1939) is an ancient historian and classicist who specialises in the culture and society of Hellenistic Egypt, the early Hellenistic world, and documentary papyrology. Career Thompson was born in 1939, the dau ...
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, '' Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens'', Vol. 75, No. 2 (Apr. - Jun., 2006), pp. 205–217. *Denis Rousset, ''Le territoire de Delphes et la terre d'Apollon'', Athens, Ecole française d'Athènes, 2002. *Françoise Ruzé & Jacqueline Christien,
Sparte, Histoire, mythe, géographie
', Malakoff, Armand Colin, 2017. *Henri Van Effenterre, ''La Crète et le monde grec de Platon à Polybe'', Paris, 1948. *D. Alexander Walthall, "Becoming Kings: Spartan ''Basileia'' in the Hellenistic Period", in
Nino Luraghi Nino Luraghi (born 30 November 1964) is an Italian historian of ancient Greece, who holds the Wykeham Professorship of Ancient History at Oxford University. Life Luraghi is the son of (1921–2012), an Italian resistance fighter and historian. ...
(editor), ''The Splendors and Miseries of Ruling Alone, Encounters with Monarchy from Archaic Greece to the Hellenistic Mediterranean'', Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart 2013. *R. F. Willetts, ''Aristocratic society in Ancient Crete'', London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1955. {{Authority control 310s BC births 265 BC deaths 4th-century BC Greek monarchs 3rd-century BC monarchs in Europe 4th-century BC Spartans 3rd-century BC Spartans Agiad kings of Sparta Ancient Greeks killed in battle Hellenistic Jewish history Hellenistic Crete People in the deuterocanonical books Pyrrhus of Epirus Year of birth uncertain