Arabic calligraphy is the artistic practice of

handwriting Handwriting in Italian schools (XXth - XXIst century) Handwriting is the personal and unique style of writing with a writing instrument, such as a pen or pencil in the hand. Handwriting includes both block and cursive styles and is separa ...

and

calligraphy Calligraphy () is a visual art related to writing. It is the design and execution of lettering with a pen, ink brush, or other writing instruments. Contemporary calligraphic practice can be defined as "the art of giving form to signs in an e ...

based on the

Arabic alphabet The Arabic alphabet, or the Arabic abjad, is the Arabic script as specifically codified for writing the Arabic language. It is a unicase, unicameral script written from right-to-left in a cursive style, and includes 28 letters, of which most ...

. It is known in

Arabic Arabic (, , or , ) is a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns lang ...

as ''khatt'' (), derived from the words 'line', 'design', or 'construction'.

Kufic The Kufic script () is a style of Arabic script, that gained prominence early on as a preferred script for Quran transcription and architectural decoration, and it has since become a reference and an archetype for a number of other Arabic scripts ...

is the oldest form of the

Arabic script The Arabic script is the writing system used for Arabic (Arabic alphabet) and several other languages of Asia and Africa. It is the second-most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world (after the Latin script), the second-most widel ...

. From an artistic point of view, Arabic calligraphy has been known and appreciated for its diversity and great potential for development. In fact, it has been linked in Arabic culture to various fields such as

religion Religion is a range of social system, social-cultural systems, including designated religious behaviour, behaviors and practices, morals, beliefs, worldviews, religious text, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics in religion, ethics, or ...

art Art is a diverse range of cultural activity centered around ''works'' utilizing creative or imaginative talents, which are expected to evoke a worthwhile experience, generally through an expression of emotional power, conceptual ideas, tec ...

architecture Architecture is the art and technique of designing and building, as distinguished from the skills associated with construction. It is both the process and the product of sketching, conceiving, planning, designing, and construction, constructi ...

, education and craftsmanship, which in turn have played an important role in its advancement. Although most

Islamic calligraphy Islamic calligraphy is the artistic practice of penmanship and calligraphy, in the languages which use Arabic alphabet or the Arabic script#Additional letters used in other languages, alphabets derived from it. It is a highly stylized and struc ...

is in Arabic and most Arabic calligraphy is Islamic, the two are not identical. Coptic or other

Christian A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a Monotheism, monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the wo ...

manuscripts in Arabic, for example, have made use of calligraphy. Likewise, there is Islamic calligraphy in Persian and

Ottoman Turkish Ottoman Turkish (, ; ) was the standardized register of the Turkish language in the Ottoman Empire (14th to 20th centuries CE). It borrowed extensively, in all aspects, from Arabic and Persian. It was written in the Ottoman Turkish alphabet. ...

Arabic alphabet

The

is one of the most widely used scripts in the world. Many scholars believe that the alphabet was created around the 4th century CE. The alphabet consists of 28 letters written from right to left. Each letter can be written in four ways, depending on where the letter is placed in a word. These four locations are also known as initial, medial, final and isolated. All letters can connect from the right side (i.e. to the preceding letter), but some do not connect from the left side (i.e. to the subsequent letter). Three letters can also represent long vowels in certain contexts, namely ālif (ا), wāw (و), and yā (ي).

Implements

The pens used for Arabic calligraphy vary from Latin calligraphy. The tools used for calligraphy are different assortments of pens and calligraphy ink. The most common calligraphy pen used is Qalam.

Khamish pen

The Khamish pen also known as a reed pen is used by Arab, Turkish, and Iranian calligraphers. The reed of the pen is grown along rivers. Although this pen has been used for over 500 years, preparing the pen is a lengthy process.

Java pen

The Java pen is known for the tool's hardness and ability to create sharp edges. The pen is good to use for small scripts.

Handam pen

The Handam pen consists of the same strength that the Java pen has. The pen is good to use for all kinds of scripts.

Celi pen

The Celi pen is used for large writing in Arabic calligraphy. These pens are made from hardwood and cut and drilled.

Evolution

Arabic calligraphy evolved from a tool for communication and documentation to an artistic form in the span of 13 centuries, it was also implemented in various other fields such as

mathematics Mathematics is a field of study that discovers and organizes methods, Mathematical theory, theories and theorems that are developed and Mathematical proof, proved for the needs of empirical sciences and mathematics itself. There are many ar ...

and

astronomy Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and the phenomena that occur in the cosmos. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and their overall evolution. Objects of interest includ ...

. It is a central form of decoration in

Islamic art Islamic art is a part of Islamic culture and encompasses the visual arts produced since the 7th century CE by people who lived within territories inhabited or ruled by Muslims, Muslim populations. Referring to characteristic traditions across ...

, such as decorative design and architecture. The evolution of Arabic calligraphy lead to the appearance of various scripts, including cursive styles such as

Nastaliq ''Nastaliq'' (; ; ), also Romanization of Persian, romanized as ''Nastaʿlīq'' or ''Nastaleeq'' (), is one of the main book hand, calligraphic hands used to write Arabic script and is used for some Indo-Iranian languages, predominantly Persi ...

and Ruq'ah, and more square, angular styles such as

. The linguistic features of Arabic scripts are shared between all scripts despite differences in styles.

Scripts

Kufic

Originally used for inscription on stone and metal, the Kufic style of Arabic calligraphy received its name due to its birth in the city of

Kufa Kufa ( ), also spelled Kufah, is a city in Iraq, about south of Baghdad, and northeast of Najaf. It is located on the banks of the Euphrates, Euphrates River. The estimated population in 2003 was 110,000. Along with Samarra, Karbala, Kadhimiya ...

, Iraq. This script is one of the oldest scripts used in Arabic and

; due to this, the style has undergone many evolutions and changes in its life course, as many attempts were made to perfect it. However, this also led to the development of many different variations of this script, such as the floriated Kufic, square Kufic, knotted Kufic, and many others. This also means there are few distinguishing features of the Kufic script. The Kufic style has been used almost exclusively for Arabic, as opposed to other languages, such as Persian and

Urdu Urdu (; , , ) is an Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in South Asia. It is the Languages of Pakistan, national language and ''lingua franca'' of Pakistan. In India, it is an Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of Indi ...

, that are written in systems derived from Arabic; a single exception to this is a series of Persian rhymes found on a building in

Ghazni Ghazni (, ), historically known as Ghaznayn () or Ghazna (), also transliterated as Ghuznee, and anciently known as Alexandria in Opiana (), is a city in southeastern Afghanistan with a population of around 190,000 people. The city is strategica ...

from the 11th century.

Naskh

Known as the Naskh or Naskhī script, this script is said to have originated from

Mecca Mecca, officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, is the capital of Mecca Province in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia; it is the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow valley above ...

and

Medina Medina, officially al-Madinah al-Munawwarah (, ), also known as Taybah () and known in pre-Islamic times as Yathrib (), is the capital of Medina Province (Saudi Arabia), Medina Province in the Hejaz region of western Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, ...

. The script is used as a cursive script, for example on papyrus and paper. The origins of the style are debated by scholars, but some believe it initially stemmed from the

Thuluth ''Thuluth'' (, ' or , '; , ''Sols''; Turkish: ''Sülüs'', from ' "one-third") is an Arabic script variety of Islamic calligraphy. The straight angular forms of Kufic were replaced in the new script by curved and oblique lines. In ''Thuluth'', ...

script.But recent discoveries in Jabal Sala in Medina have proven that the Naskh script precedes the Thuluth script and that it existed before Ibn Muqla al-Shirazi. One of the main usages for this script was for writing the

Quran The Quran, also Romanization, romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a Waḥy, revelation directly from God in Islam, God (''Allah, Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which ...

but it was also used for inscription on metal antiquities, woods and other objects of decorative purpose. The main evolutionary periods for this script were the 3rd and 4th centuries AH, coinciding with the evolution other similar popular styles such as the Rayhani, Thulth, and

Muhaqqaq Muhaqqaq is one of the main six types of Islamic calligraphy, calligraphic script in Arabic.John F. A. Sawyer, J. M. Y. Simpson, R. E. Asher (eds.), ''Concise Encyclopedia of Language and Religion'', Elsevier, New York 2001, , p. 253. The Arabic la ...

Other scripts

The

and Nasta'liq and

Diwani Diwani is a calligraphic variety of Arabic script, a cursive style developed during the reign of the early Ottoman Turks (16th century - early 17th century). It reached its height of popularity under Süleyman I the Magnificent (1520–1566 ...

script are other scripts used for Arabic scripting. The Thuluth script, used during the medieval times, is known as one of the oldest scripts to exist. The script was used in mosques and for Quranic text due to the appearance of the text. The Nasta'liq script is used more for Persian than Arabic scripting. Because of the upward slant to the left, the script is seen as different from the other scripts. The Diwani script was created during the Ottoman era. The lining and lettering of this script creates a sense of closeness when writing. Due to this reason, it is difficult to read since the letters intertwine. Folio of an album in Thuluth script

A few other examples: * Rayhani script *

script * Ruq'ah script

List of calligraphers

Medieval

Al-Kindi Abū Yūsuf Yaʻqūb ibn ʼIsḥāq aṣ-Ṣabbāḥ al-Kindī (; ; ; ) was an Arab Muslim polymath active as a philosopher, mathematician, physician, and music theorist Music theory is the study of theoretical frameworks for understandin ...

(801-873 AD) *

Ibn Muqla Abu Ali Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Muqla (; 885/6 – 20 July 940/1), commonly known as Ibn Muqla, was an official of the Abbasid Caliphate who rose to high state posts in the early 10th century. His career culminated in his own assumption of the v ...

(d. 939/940) * Ibn al-Bawwab (d. 1022) * Fakhr-un-Nisa (12th century)

Ottoman era

* Shaykh Hamdullah (1436–1520) * Hamid Aytaç (1891-1982) * Seyyid Kasim Gubari (d. 1624) * Hâfiz Osman (1642–1698) * Mustafa Râkim (1757–1826) * Mehmed Shevki Efendi (1829–1887)

Contemporary

* Hasan Çelebi (b. 1937), Turkey * Ali Adjalli (b. 1939), Iran * Wijdan Ali (b. 1939), Jordan * Hashem Muhammad al-Baghdadi, Iraq * Everitte Barbee (b. 1988), United States of America * Mohammad Hosni Syria * Shakkir Hassan Al Sa'id (1925-2004) in Iraq * Madiha Omar Iraqi-American * Hassan Massoudy Iraqi-French (b. 1944) * Sadequain Naqqash (1930-1987), Pakistan * Ibrahim el-Salahi (b. 1930), Sudan * Mouneer Al-Shaarani (b. 1952), Syria * Mahmoud Taha (b. 1942), Jordan * Mohamed Zakariya (b. 1942), United States of America * Uthman Taha (b. 1934), Syria * Shafiq-Uz-Zaman Khan Pakistan

Legacy

Type design and type setting

Arabic calligraphy serves as a major source of inspiration for Arabic type design. For example, the Amiri typeface is inspired by the Naskh script used at the

Amiri Press The Amiri Press or Amiriya Press () (''Al-Matba'a al-Amiriya'') (also known as the Bulaq Press () due to its original location in Bulaq) is a printing press, and one of the main agencies with which Muhammad Ali of Egypt, Muhammad Ali Pasha moder ...

in Cairo. The shift from Arabic calligraphy to Arabic

typeface A typeface (or font family) is a design of Letter (alphabet), letters, Numerical digit, numbers and other symbols, to be used in printing or for electronic display. Most typefaces include variations in size (e.g., 24 point), weight (e.g., light, ...

s presents technical challenges, as Arabic is essentially a cursive script with contextual shapes.

Islamic world and civilization

Credited to be the one that catalyzed the growth of Arabic calligraphy; with the earliest works of Arabic calligraphy being featured in copies of the

dating back to the first century of Islam's revelation such as

Birmingham Quran Manuscript The Birmingham Quran manuscript comprises two leaves of parchment from an early Quranic manuscript or muṣḥaf. In 2015, the manuscript, which is held by the University of Birmingham in England, was radiocarbon dated to between 568 and 6 ...

, Codex Parisino-Petropolitanus and several others. Arabic calligraphy can be on occasion be found in places of worship for Muslim's known as

Mosque A mosque ( ), also called a masjid ( ), is a place of worship for Muslims. The term usually refers to a covered building, but can be any place where Salah, Islamic prayers are performed; such as an outdoor courtyard. Originally, mosques were si ...

s with engravings of Quranic verses / Ayah present on parts of the architecture itself. The most widely recognized example of Arabic Calligraphy on a place of Islamic worship is the Kaaba present in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. Arabic calligraphy specializes into the term ''

'' when it is associated with the Islamic world.

Art

EL Seed, a French-Tunisian

graffiti Graffiti (singular ''graffiti'', or ''graffito'' only in graffiti archeology) is writing or drawings made on a wall or other surface, usually without permission and within public view. Graffiti ranges from simple written "monikers" to elabor ...

artist, makes use of Arabic calligraphy in his various art projects, in a style called '' calligraffiti''. The ''Hurufiyya'' ( ''letters'') movement, since its beginnings in the early 20th century, uses the artistic manipulation of Arabic calligraphy and typography in abstraction. ''Taking Shape: Abstraction From the Arab World, 1950s-1980s'', a 2020 installation at New York University's Grey Art Gallery, explored how Arabic calligraphy, with its ancient presence in visual art, influenced

abstract art Abstract art uses visual language of shape, form, color and line to create a Composition (visual arts), composition which may exist with a degree of independence from visual references in the world. ''Abstract art'', ''non-figurative art'', ''non- ...

in the

Arab world The Arab world ( '), formally the Arab homeland ( '), also known as the Arab nation ( '), the Arabsphere, or the Arab states, comprises a large group of countries, mainly located in West Asia and North Africa. While the majority of people in ...

. For Madiha Omar, the Arabic alphabet was a means of expressing a secular identity and appropriating

Western painting The history of Western painting represents a continuous, though disrupted, tradition from classical antiquity, antiquity until the present time. Until the mid-19th century it was primarily concerned with Representational art, representational ...

, while Omar El-Nagdi explored the inherent divinity of Arabic calligraphy.

Modern examples

File:Emirates logo.svg, The

Emirates Emirates may refer to: * United Arab Emirates The United Arab Emirates (UAE), or simply the Emirates, is a country in West Asia, in the Middle East, at the eastern end of the Arabian Peninsula. It is a Federal monarchy, federal elective ...

logo is written in traditional Arabic calligraphy File:Learning Arabic calligraphy.jpg, The instruments and work of a student calligrapher. The phrase written on the top of the paper shows the Shiite saying "Every day is

Ashura Ashura (, , ) is a day of commemoration in Islam. It occurs annually on the tenth of Muharram, the first month of the Islamic calendar. For Sunni Muslims, Ashura marks the parting of the Red Sea by Moses and the salvation of the Israelites ...

and every land is

Karbala Karbala is a major city in central Iraq. It is the capital of Karbala Governorate. With an estimated population of 691,100 people in 2024, Karbala is the second largest city in central Iraq, after Baghdad. The city is located about southwest ...

." File:Visit Saudi Logo.svg, The official logo of the Saudi Tourism website that translates to "Visit Saudi". File:Saudi National Center for Archives and Records Logo.svg, Logo of the Saudi National Center for Archives and Records File:Al Jazeera Calligraphy.svg, Logo of

Al Jazeera Media Network Al Jazeera Media Network (AJMN; , ) is a private-media media conglomerate, conglomerate headquartered in Wadi Al Sail, Doha, funded in part by the government of Qatar. The network's flagship channels include Al Jazeera Arabic and Al Jazeera E ...

References

Bibliography

External links

* {{Authority control Arabic art Arabic orthography Calligraphy