Apocynaceae (, from '' Apocynum'', Greek for "dog-away") is a family of

flowering plant Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (). The term angiosperm is derived from the Ancient Greek, Greek words (; 'container, vessel') and (; 'seed'), meaning that the seeds are enclosed with ...

s that includes trees, shrubs, herbs, stem succulents, and vines, commonly known as the dogbane family, because some taxa were used as dog poison. Notable members of the family include oleander, dogbanes, milkweeds, and periwinkles. The family is native to the European, Asian, African, Australian, and American tropics or subtropics, with some temperate members as well. The former family Asclepiadaceae (now known as Asclepiadoideae) is considered a subfamily of Apocynaceae and contains 348 genera. A list of Apocynaceae genera may be found here. Many species are tall trees found in tropical forests, but some grow in tropical dry ( xeric) environments. Also

perennial In horticulture, the term perennial ('' per-'' + '' -ennial'', "through the year") is used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. It has thus been defined as a plant that lives more than 2 years. The term is also ...

herbs from

temperate zone In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (approximately 23.5° to 66.5° N/S of the Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ra ...

s occur. Many of these plants have milky latex, and many species are poisonous if ingested, the family being rich in genera containing alkaloids and cardiac glycosides, those containing the latter often finding use as arrow poisons. Some genera of Apocynaceae, such as '' Adenium'', bleed clear sap without latex when damaged, and others, such as '' Pachypodium'', have milky latex apart from their sap.

Description

Growth pattern

The dogbane/milkweed family includes annual plants, perennial herbs, stem succulents, woody shrubs, trees, or vines. Most exude a milky latex when cut.

Leaves and stems

Leaves are

simple Simple or SIMPLE may refer to: *Simplicity, the state or quality of being simple Arts and entertainment * ''Simple'' (album), by Andy Yorke, 2008, and its title track * "Simple" (Florida Georgia Line song), 2018 * "Simple", a song by John ...

. They may appear one at a time (singly) with each occurrence on alternating sides of the stem,Apocynaceae, Thomas Rosatti, Jepson Herbarium
/ref> but usually occur in pairs (and rarely in whorls). When paired, they occur on opposite sides of the stem (opposite), with each pair occurring at an angle rotated 90° to the pair below it (

decussate Decussation is used in biological contexts to describe a crossing (due to the shape of the Roman numeral for ten, an uppercase 'X' (), ). In Latin anatomical terms, the form is used, e.g. . Similarly, the anatomical term chiasma is named aft ...

). There is no

stipule In botany, a stipule is an outgrowth typically borne on both sides (sometimes on just one side) of the base of a leafstalk (the petiole (botany), petiole). They are primarily found among dicots and rare among monocots. Stipules are considered part ...

(a small leaf-like structure at the base of the leaf stem), or stipules are small and sometimes finger-like.

Inflorescence and fruit

Flowers have radial symmetry ( actinomorphic), and are borne in heads that are cymes or

raceme A raceme () or racemoid is an unbranched, indeterminate growth, indeterminate type of inflorescence bearing flowers having short floral stalks along the shoots that bear the flowers. The oldest flowers grow close to the base and new flowers are ...

s, or are solitary in axils. They are perfect (bisexual), with a synsepalous, five-lobed calyx united into a tube at the base. Inflorescences are terminal or axillary. Five petals are united into a tube with four or five epipetalous stamens. The

style Style, or styles may refer to: Film and television * ''Style'' (2001 film), a Hindi film starring Sharman Joshi, Riya Sen, Sahil Khan and Shilpi Mudgal * ''Style'' (2002 film), a Tamil drama film * ''Style'' (2004 film), a Burmese film * '' ...

head is swollen. The pollen is transported in foam. The

ovary The ovary () is a gonad in the female reproductive system that produces ova; when released, an ovum travels through the fallopian tube/ oviduct into the uterus. There is an ovary on the left and the right side of the body. The ovaries are end ...

is usually superior, ''bicarpellary,'' and ''apocarpous,'' with a common fused style and stigma. (Fig. 5. and Fig.6. in the illustration of '' Rhigospira quadrangularis'' show a typical tripartite style which divides into three zones (specialised for pollen deposition, viscin secretion, and the reception of pollen). The fruit is a

drupe In botany, a drupe (or stone fruit) is a type of fruit in which an outer fleshy part (exocarp, or skin, and mesocarp, or flesh) surrounds a single shell (the ''pip'' (UK), ''pit'' (US), ''stone'', or ''pyrena'') of hardened endocarp with a seed ...

, a

berry A berry is a small, pulpy, and often edible fruit. Typically, berries are juicy, rounded, brightly colored, sweet, sour or tart, and do not have a stone or pit although many pips or seeds may be present. Common examples of berries in the cul ...

, a capsule, or a (frequently paired) follicle. The seeds are often winged or have appendages of long silky hairs.

Taxonomy

As of 2012, the family was described as comprising some 5,100 species, in five subfamilies:Nazia Nazar, David J. Goyder, James J. Clarkson, Tariq Mahmood and Mark W. Chase, 2013, "The taxonomy and systematics of ''Apocynaceae'': Where we stand in 2012," '' Bot. J. Linn. Soc.,'' 171(3, March), pp. 482–490, se

accessed 22 June 2015. * Apocynoideae Burnett, 1835 * Asclepiadoideae Burnett, 1835 (incorporating the

Asclepiadaceae The Asclepiadoideae are a subfamily of plants in the family Apocynaceae. Formerly, it was treated as a separate family under the name Asclepiadaceae, e.g. by APG II, and known as the milkweed family. They form a group of perennial herbs, twinin ...

) * Periplocoideae Endl., 1838 * Rauvolfioideae Kostel., 1834 * Secamonoideae Endl., 1838 The former family Asclepiadaceae is included in Apocynaceae according to the

Angiosperm Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (). The term angiosperm is derived from the Greek words (; 'container, vessel') and (; 'seed'), meaning that the seeds are enclosed within a fruit ...

Phylogeny Group III ( APG III) modern, largely molecular-based system of flowering plant taxonomy. An updated classification, including 366 genera, 25 tribes, and 49 subtribes, was published in 2014. 376 genera are currently accepted.''Apocynaceae'' Juss.
''

Plants of the World Online Plants of the World Online (POWO) is an online taxonomic database published by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. History Following the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Royal Botanic Gardens in Kew launched Plants of the World Online i ...

''. Retrieved 24 July 2023.

Distribution and habitat

Species in this family are distributed mainly in tropical regions: *In the tropical forests and swamps of

Indomalaya The Indomalayan realm is one of the eight biogeographic realms. It extends across most of South and Southeast Asia and into the southern parts of East Asia. Also called the Oriental realm by biogeographers, Indomalaya spreads all over the Ind ...

: small to very tall evergreen trees up to tall, often with buttress roots, such as '' Alstonia'' and '' Dyera.'' *In Australia: occurs in all habitats; about 46 genera and about 200 species, including about 20 naturalised; herbs, vines, shrubs and trees. *In deciduous forests of Africa, India, and

Indo-China Mainland Southeast Asia (historically known as Indochina and the Indochinese Peninsula) is the continental portion of Southeast Asia. It lies east of the Indian subcontinent and south of Mainland China and is bordered by the Indian Ocean to th ...

: smaller trees such as '' Carissa'', '' Wrightia,'' and '' Holarrhena'' *In tropical America, India, Myanmar, and Malaya: evergreen trees and shrubs, such as ''

Rauvolfia ''Rauvolfia'' (sometimes spelled ''Rauwolfia'') is a genus of evergreen trees and shrubs, commonly known as devil peppers, in the family Apocynaceae. The genus is named to honor Leonhard Rauwolf. The genus can mainly be found in Tropics, trop ...

'', '' Tabernaemontana,'' and '' Acokanthera.'' *In Central America: '' Plumeria'', or the frangipani, with its waxy white or pink flowers and a sweet scent. *In South America, Africa, and Madagascar: many

liana A liana is a long-Plant stem, stemmed Woody plant, woody vine that is rooted in the soil at ground level and uses trees, as well as other means of vertical support, to climb up to the Canopy (biology), canopy in search of direct sunlight. T ...

s, such as '' Landolphia'' *In the Mediterranean region: '' Nerium'', with the well-known oleander or be-still tree (''

Nerium oleander ''Nerium oleander'' ( ), commonly known as oleander or rosebay, is a shrub or small tree cultivated worldwide in temperate and subtropical areas as an ornamental and landscaping plant. It is the Monotypic taxon, only species currently classifi ...

''), and Apple of Sodom ('' Calotropis procera''), with other ('' Calotropis'') species extending into South Asia. *The only genera found in temperate Europe away from the Mediterranean are '' Vinca'' (Rauvolfioideae) and '' Vincetoxicum'' (Asclepiadoideae). Also '' Asclepias syriaca'' is an invasive weed (e. g., in many areas of Ukraine). *In North America: '' Apocynum'', dogbane or Indian hemp, including '' Apocynum cannabinum'', a traditional source of fiber. Also the bluestars, ''

Amsonia ''Amsonia'' is a genus of flowering plants in the Apocynum, dogbane family, Apocynaceae, first described as a genus in 1788. It is native primarily to North America with one species in East Asia and another in the eastern Mediterranean. It was ...

'', herbaceous perennials of upright habit, grown as ornamental plants for their attractive flowers. *In continental southern Africa (Angola, Botswana, Eswatini, Mozambique, South Africa, and Zimbabwe) and Madagascar, except for the humid evergreen forest of the eastern side of Madagascar, and never above for the entire island: '' Pachypodium'' and ''

Fockea ''Fockea'' is a genus of succulent scrubs native to Africa south of the equator. They are members of the Asclepiadoideae (milkweeds), a subfamily of the dogbane family Apocynaceae. Of the six accepted species, only the two most widely distributed ...

.''

Ecology

Several genera are preferred larval host plants for the Queen Butterfly (''Danaus gilippus'').

Toxicity

Many species of plants from the family Apocynaceae have some toxicity, with some being extremely poisonous if parts are ingested, or if they are not handled properly. Genera containing

cardiac glycoside Cardiac glycosides are a class of organic compounds that increase the output force of the heart and decrease its rate of contractions by inhibiting the cellular sodium-potassium ATPase pump. Their beneficial medical uses include treatments for ...

s—'' Cerbera'', '' Nerium'', '' Asclepias'', '' Cascabela'', '' Strophanthus,'' '' Acokanthera'', '' Apocynum,'' '' Thevetia,'' etc.—have therapeutic ranges, but are often associated with accidental poisonings, in many cases lethal (see below).

Alkaloid Alkaloids are a broad class of natural product, naturally occurring organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom. Some synthetic compounds of similar structure may also be termed alkaloids. Alkaloids are produced by a large varie ...

-producing species like '' Rauvolfia serpentina,'' '' Catharanthus roseus,'' and '' Tabernanthe iboga'' are likewise the source of compounds with therapeutic ranges, but which have significant associated toxicities if not taken in appropriate doses and in controlled fashion. (See below)

Uses

Several members of the family Apocynaceae have had economic uses in the past. Several are sources of important

natural product A natural product is a natural compound or substance produced by a living organism—that is, found in nature. In the broadest sense, natural products include any substance produced by life. Natural products can also be prepared by chemical s ...

s—pharmacologic tool compounds and drug research candidates, and in some cases actual prescription drugs.

Cardiac glycoside Cardiac glycosides are a class of organic compounds that increase the output force of the heart and decrease its rate of contractions by inhibiting the cellular sodium-potassium ATPase pump. Their beneficial medical uses include treatments for ...

s, which affect heart function, are a ready example. Genera studied and known to contain such glycosides include '' Acokanthera'', '' Apocynum'', '' Cerbera'', '' Nerium'', '' Thevetia'' and '' Strophanthus.'' '' Rauvolfia serpentina'' (Indian snakeroot) contains the alkaloid

reserpine Reserpine is a drug that is used for the treatment of hypertension, high blood pressure, usually in combination with a thiazide diuretic or vasodilator. Large clinical trials have shown that combined treatment with reserpine plus a thiazide diur ...

, which has been used as an antihypertensive and an antipsychotic drug but its adverse effects limit its clinical use. '' Catharanthus roseus'' yields alkaloids used in the treatment of cancer. '' Tabernanthe iboga,

Voacanga africana ''Voacanga'' is a genus of plants in the family Apocynaceae found in Africa, Southeast Asia, New Guinea, and Australia. the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families recognises 13 species:Search for "Voacanga", ;Species # ''Voacanga africana' ...

, and Tabernaemontana undulata'' contain the alkaloid ibogaine, which is a

psychedelic drug Psychedelics are a subclass of hallucinogenic drugs whose primary effect is to trigger non-ordinary mental states (known as psychedelic experiences or "trips") and a perceived "expansion of consciousness". Also referred to as classic halluc ...

which may help with drug addiction, but which has significant adverse effects, with ibogaine being both cardiotoxic and neurotoxic. Ajmalicine, an

alkaloid Alkaloids are a broad class of natural product, naturally occurring organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom. Some synthetic compounds of similar structure may also be termed alkaloids. Alkaloids are produced by a large varie ...

found in ''

'' spp., '' Catharanthus roseus'', and '' Mitragyna speciosa'', is an antihypertensive drug used in the treatment of high blood pressure. Many genera are grown as

ornamental plant Ornamental plants or ''garden plants'' are plants that are primarily grown for their beauty but also for qualities such as scent or how they shape physical space. Many flowering plants and garden varieties tend to be specially bred cultivars th ...

s, including ''

'' (bluestar), '' Nerium'' (oleander), '' Vinca'' (periwinkle), '' Carissa'' (Natal plum), '' Allamanda'' (golden trumpet), '' Plumeria'' (frangipani), '' Thevetia'', '' Mandevilla'' (Savannah flower), and '' Adenium'' (desert-rose). In addition, the genera '' Landolphia'', '' Carpodinus'', and '' Mascarenhasia'' have been used as commercial sources of inferior rubber. (See

Congo rubber ''Landolphia owariensis'' is a species of liana from the family Apocynaceae found in tropical Africa. Latex can be extracted from this plant for the manufacture of natural rubber. Other names for this vine are eta, the white rubber vine and the C ...

) There are limited dietary uses of plants from this family. The flower of '' Echites panduratus'' (common name: ') is edible. '' Carissa'' (Natal plum) produces an edible fruit, but all other parts of the plant are poisonous. The genus '' Apocynum'' was reportedly used as a source of fiber by Native Americans. The aromatic fruit juice from '' Saba comorensis'' (syn. ''Landolphia comorensis'', the Bungo or Mbungo fruit) is used as a drink. Finally, ethnopharmacologic and ethnotoxicologic uses are also known. The roots of '' Tabernanthe iboga'' and certain '' Voacanga'' species have traditionally been used ceremonially as hallucinogens in Africa. The ibogaine-type alkaloids responsible for the psychoactivity of these plants have been studied with regard to the treatment of drug addiction. The juice of '' Acokanthera'' species such as '' A. venenata'' and the milky juice of the

Namibia Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country on the west coast of Southern Africa. Its borders include the Atlantic Ocean to the west, Angola and Zambia to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south; in the no ...

n '' Pachypodium'' have been used as poison for arrow tips. Many species are ornamental in gardens or as houseplants.

Gallery

Flowers

File:Acokanthera oblongifolia 2445.JPG, '' Acokanthera oblongifolia'' File:Adenium obesum3.jpg, '' Adenium obesum'' File:Allamanda cathartica flowers 2.JPG, '' Allamanda cathartica'' File:糖膠樹(黑板樹) Alstonia scholaris -香港中央圖書館 Hong Kong Central Library- (9237370435).jpg, '' Alstonia scholaris'' File:Alyxia.oliviformis1web.jpg, '' Alyxia oliviformis'' File:Amsonia tabernaemontana kz01.jpg, ''

Amsonia tabernaemontana ''Amsonia tabernaemontana'', the eastern bluestar, is a North American species of flowering plant in the family Apocynaceae, found in central and eastern North America. Gallery File:Amsonia tabernaemontana kz01.jpg, Detail of inflorescence File: ...

'' File:Ancylobothrys capensis08.jpg, '' Ancylobothrys capensis'' File:Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-017.jpg, '' Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco'' illustration in Köhler's Medizinal-Pflanzen File:Caralluma burchardii IMGP8282.JPG, '' Apteranthes burchardii'' File:Asclepias curassavica 1854.jpg, '' Asclepias curassavica'' File:Caralluma acutangula Bild0685.jpg, '' Caralluma acutangula'' File:Caralluma europaea - cvet.jpg, '' Caralluma europaea'' File:Caralluma socotrana 01.jpg, '' Caralluma socotrana'' File:Cascabela thevetia1MTFL.jpg, '' Cascabela thevetia'' (syn. ''Thevetia peruviana'') File:Catharanthus roseus-IMG 5432.jpg, '' Catharanthus roseus'' File:Cerbera manghas flower.jpg, '' Cerbera manghas'' File:Cryptolepis buchananii (2618297906).jpg, '' Cryptolepis dubia'' File:Cycladeniahumilisjonesii.JPG, '' Cycladenia humilis var.jonesii'' File:Holarrhena pubescens flowers.jpg, '' Holarrhena pubescens'' File:Hoodia gordonii 1DS-II 2-3327.jpg, '' Hoodia gordonii'' File:Hoya FR 2013.jpg, '' Hoya carnosa'' File:Mandevilla boliviensis.jpg, '' Mandevilla boliviensis'' File:Nerium oleander pink.jpg, ''

'' File:Ochrosia borbonica 02.JPG, '' Ochrosia borbonica'' File:Pachypodium lamerei 5Dsr 1733.jpg, '' Pachypodium lamerei'' File:Comarca Oeste, Las Palmas, Spain - panoramio.jpg, ''Pachypodium lamerei'' growth habit File:Fiore di Periploca graeca.jpg, '' Periploca graeca'' File:Plumeria rubra L. (2257161947).jpg, ''

Plumeria rubra ''Plumeria rubra'' is a deciduous plant species belonging to the genus ''Plumeria''."Botanica. The Illustrated AZ of over 10000 garden plants and how to cultivate them", p. 691. Könemann, 2004. Originally native to Mexico, Central America, Col ...

'' File:Rhabdadenia madida.jpg, '' Rhabdadenia madida'' File:Rauvolfia serpentina 11.JPG, '' Rauvolfia serpentina'' File:Saba senegalensis 0002.jpg, '' Saba senegalensis'' File:Secamone alpini00.jpg, '' Secamone alpini'' File:Aasblume Aug 2005.jpg, ''

Stapelia gigantea ''Stapelia gigantea'' is a species of flowering plant in the genus '' Stapelia'' of the family Apocynaceae. Common names include Zulu giant, carrion plant and toad plant (although the nickname "carrion plant" can also refer to '' Stapelia grandif ...

'' File:Strophanthus speciosus 1DS-II 6026.jpg, '' Strophanthus speciosus'' File:Tabernaemontana divaricata flower in jaffna.JPG, ''

Tabernaemontana divaricata ''Tabernaemontana divaricata'', commonly called pinwheel flower, crape jasmine, East India rosebay, and Nero's crown, is an evergreen shrub or small tree native to South Asia, Southeast Asia and China. In zones where it is not hardy it is grown a ...

'' File:Tabernanthe iboga MS 4098.jpg, '' Tabernanthe iboga'' in flower and fruit File:(MAD) T. jasminoides-1.jpg, '' Trachelospermum jasminoides'' File:Vinca minor beentree.jpg, '' Vinca minor'' File:Wrightia tinctoria flowers in Keesaraguda, AP W IMG 9109.jpg, '' Wrightia tinctoria'' File:Wrightia antidysenterica (2).JPG, '' Wrightia antidysenterica'' File:Wrightia tinctoria 09.JPG, '' Wrightia tinctoria'' single flower

Fruits

File:Acokanthera oblongifolia 03.jpg, '' Acokanthera oblongifolia'' File:Fruits in Adenuim Obesum Plant on Terrace garden.jpg, '' Adenium obesum'' File:Adenium obesum pod and seeds.jpg, '' Adenium obesum'' dehiscence of single fruit. File:Allamanda cathartica MHNT.jpg, '' Allamanda cathartica'' File:Alstonia scholaris fruits.JPG, '' Alstonia scholaris'' File:Alyxia oliviformis fruit.jpg, '' Alyxia oliviformis'' File:Amsonia tabernaemontana container plant in fruit (paired follicles).jpg, ''

'' containerised specimen in fruit File:Amsonia tabernaemontana single paired follicle detached from plant (pale side).jpg, ''Amsonia tabernaemontana'' single paired follicle detached from plant (paler, unsunned side) File:Ancylobothrys capensis, vrugte, Faerie Glen NR.jpg, '' Ancylobothrys capensis'' File:Milkweed-in-seed.jpg, '' Asclepias syriaca'' dehiscent follicles (before unfurling of pappi) File:Asclepias curassavica 003.JPG, '' Asclepias curassavica'' dehiscent follicles shedding seeds with unfurled pappi File:Thevetia peruviana 04.JPG, '' Cascabela thevetia'' (syn.''Thevetia peruviana'') File:Thevetia peruviana - Fruits.jpg, '' Cascabela thevetia'' (syn.''Thevetia peruviana''): dissection of toxic fruits. File:Cerbera tanghin - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-176.jpg, '' Cerbera manghas'' File:Cryptolepis buchananii (6048993215).jpg, '' Cryptolepis dubia'' File:Holarrhena pubescens fruits.jpg, '' Holarrhena pubescens'' File:Hoodia gordonii Frucht P1010402.JPG, '' Hoodia gordoniI'' File:Mandevilla boliviensis 9zz.jpg, '' Mandevilla boliviensis'' File:Nerium oleander seeds.jpg, ''

'' (dehiscence) File:Ochrosia borbonica fruit 1.JPG, '' Ochrosia borbonica'' File:Pachypodium namaquanum 1DS-II 1-C5587.jpg, '' Pachypodium namaquanum'' File:Periploca graeca Silk Vine ღვედკეცი.JPG, '' Periploca graeca'' File:Plumeria alba (seed pods).jpg, '' Plumeria alba'' File:സർപഗന്ധി വിത്തുകൾ 13.JPG, '' Rauvolfia serpentina'' File:Saba senegalensis MS 1367.JPG, '' Saba senegalensis'' unripe fruit File:Saba senegalensis - fruit pulp sections.jpg, '' Saba senegalensis'': dissection of ripe, edible fruit File:Secamone parvifolia 1DS-II 3-3506.jpg, '' Secamone parvifolia'' File:Stapelia gigantea 1DS-II 8834.jpg, ''

'' File:Strophanthus speciosus, vrugkapsule en sade, Manie van der Schijff BT, a.jpg, '' Strophanthus speciosus'' (dehiscence) File:Tabernaemontana catharinensis (1).JPG, '' Tabernaemontana catharinensis'' (dehiscence) File:Iboga.jpg, '' Tabernanthe iboga'' File:Trachelospermum jasminoides fruits+seeds.jpg, '' Trachelospermum jasminoides'' (dehiscence) File:Trachelospermum jasminoides seeds.jpg, ''Trachelospermum jasminoides'': individual seeds, showing pappus File:Vinca major vima 002 php.jpg, '' Vinca major'' (seeds) File:Illustration Vinca minor0 clean.png, '' Vinca minor'': botanical plate showing paired fruits (no. 5) File:Wrightia tinctoria 32.JPG, '' Wrightia tinctoria''

Pachycaul species

File:Desert rose Adenium obesum in Tanzania 2259 Nevit.jpg, '' Adenium obesum'' growth habit of wild specimens, Tanzania File:Desert Rose (Adenium obesum), Ghana.jpg, ''Adenium obesum'' close-up of colossal specimen, Ghana File:Desert Rose, Socotra Is (17131661372).jpg, ''Adenium obesum'' trunk of extreme pachycaul specimen, Socotra File:Pachypodium lamerei 01.jpg, '' Pachypodium lamerei'' wild specimen of maximum height (approx ) attained by species File:Pachypodium lamieri1MTFL.jpg, '' Pachypodium lamerei'' in flower File:PachypodiumLamerei.jpg, ''Pachypodium lamerei'' mature, multi-trunked specimen cultivated in glasshouse File:Pachypodium namaquanum00.jpg, '' Pachypodium namaquanum''

References

External links

Apocynaceae
i

* *