Antoni Lange (28 April 1862 – 17 March 1929) was a Polish poet, philosopher, polyglot (15 languages), writer, novelist, science-writer, reporter and

translator Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. The English language draws a terminological distinction (which does not exist in every language) between ''trans ...

. A representative of Polish Parnassianism and symbolism, he is also regarded as belonging to the

Decadent movement The Decadent movement (from the French language, French ''décadence'', ) was a late 19th-century Art movement, artistic and literary movement, literary movement, centered in Western Europe, that followed an aesthetic ideology of excess and artif ...

. He was an expert on

Romanticism Romanticism (also known as the Romantic movement or Romantic era) was an artistic and intellectual movement that originated in Europe towards the end of the 18th century. The purpose of the movement was to advocate for the importance of subjec ...

French literature French literature () generally speaking, is literature written in the French language, particularly by French people, French citizens; it may also refer to literature written by people living in France who speak traditional languages of Franc ...

and a popularizer of Eastern cultures. His most popular novel is '' Miranda''. He translated English, French, Hungarian, Italian, Spanish, Indian, American, Serbian, Egyptian and Oriental writers into Polish and Polish poets into French and English. He was also one of the most original poets of the Young Poland movement. His work is often compared to

Stéphane Mallarmé Stéphane Mallarmé ( , ; ; 18 March 1842 – 9 September 1898), pen name of Étienne Mallarmé, was a French poet and critic. He was a major French Symbolist poet, and his work anticipated and inspired several revolutionary artistic schools o ...

and Charles Marie René Leconte de Lisle. Lange was an uncle of the poet Bolesław Leśmian.

Life

Lange was born in Warsaw into the patriotic Jewish family of Henryk Lange (1815–1884) and Zofia ''

née The birth name is the name of the person given upon their birth. The term may be applied to the surname, the given name or to the entire name. Where births are required to be officially registered, the entire name entered onto a births registe ...

'' Eisenbaum (1832–1897). His father took part in the

November Uprising The November Uprising (1830–31) (), also known as the Polish–Russian War 1830–31 or the Cadet Revolution, was an armed rebellion in Russian Partition, the heartland of Partitions of Poland, partitioned Poland against the Russian Empire. ...

against the

Russian Partition The Russian Partition (), sometimes called Russian Poland, constituted the former territories of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth that were annexed by the Russian Empire in the course of late-18th-century Partitions of Poland. The Russian ac ...

of Poland. He was an admirerer of Romantic literature and its ideals. Antoni Lange enrolled at Warsaw University but around 1880 he was expelled for his patriotic activity by the Tsarist namiestnik Apuchtin who ruled the university at that time. He supported himself financially as a tutor but also published poetry under the pen-names Napierski and Antoni Wrzesień. He decided to study in Paris where he encountered new trends in literature, philosophy and art. In France he became familiar with the theories of Jean Martin Charcot, as well as Spiritualism,

parapsychology Parapsychology is the study of alleged psychic phenomena (extrasensory perception, telepathy, teleportation, precognition, clairvoyance, psychokinesis (also called telekinesis), and psychometry (paranormal), psychometry) and other paranormal cla ...

, the philosophy of

Arthur Schopenhauer Arthur Schopenhauer ( ; ; 22 February 1788 – 21 September 1860) was a German philosopher. He is known for his 1818 work ''The World as Will and Representation'' (expanded in 1844), which characterizes the Phenomenon, phenomenal world as ...

and

Friedrich Nietzsche Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (15 October 1844 – 25 August 1900) was a German philosopher. He began his career as a classical philology, classical philologist, turning to philosophy early in his academic career. In 1869, aged 24, Nietzsche bec ...

, oriental religions, European and Eastern literature and modern

literary criticism A genre of arts criticism, literary criticism or literary studies is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical analysis of literature's ...

. He took part in the literary meetings of

. Lange returned to his homeland upon Poland's return to independence, and became one of the better known members of the Warsaw Society of Writers and Journalists (), the precursor of the Polish Academy of Literature founded in 1933. Bolesław Prus, Julian Ochorowicz and Lange were the first Polish spiritists. He rented an

apartment An apartment (American English, Canadian English), flat (British English, Indian English, South African English), tenement (Scots English), or unit (Australian English) is a self-contained housing unit (a type of residential real estate) that ...

at Nowy Świat Street together with Władysław Reymont, a Polish writer and the winner of the Nobel Prize of 1924. Stanisław Brzozowski called Lange ''a real and not frequently European mind'' and Julian Tuwim called him ''a master of reflective poetry''. During this time Lange was a member of the Society of Polish Writers and Journalists. However, with the sharp growth of his popularity as a poet his poems became more sceptical, pessimistic and hermetic. The main theme of the poems of this period was the feeling of being isolated and misunderstood by the crowd. At the beginning of the 20th century he withdrew from public life and became lonely and forgotten. He collected his last poems in notebooks and never allowed anyone to publish them. Lange's prestige as a writer was undermined by a new generation of avant-gardists. He died in isolation, destitution and obscurity in

Warsaw Warsaw, officially the Capital City of Warsaw, is the capital and List of cities and towns in Poland, largest city of Poland. The metropolis stands on the Vistula, River Vistula in east-central Poland. Its population is officially estimated at ...

in 1929. He never married and had no children. Antoni Lange was a friend of

, Jan Kasprowicz and Stanisław Przybyszewski. There are only two portraits of Lange, one of them was painted by Stanisław Wyspiański in 1890.

Writing

Lange was a prolific and versatile writer. He wrote many novels ('' Miranda''), short stories (), dramas (), essays and poems. Lange's poetry is contemplative and erudite. It connects the traditions of European culture with

Buddhism Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...

. The overriding theme of Lange's existential concerns was 'extremity' and the 'cycle' of death. In order to form of the poetry Lange connect to contradictory points of

impressionism Impressionism was a 19th-century art movement characterized by visible brush strokes, open Composition (visual arts), composition, emphasis on accurate depiction of light in its changing qualities (often accentuating the effects of the passage ...

, romantic sentimentality and experimental theories of

. Lange was fond of rare poetic forms:

acrostic An acrostic is a poem or other word composition in which the ''first'' letter (or syllable, or word) of each new line (or paragraph, or other recurring feature in the text) spells out a word, message or the alphabet. The term comes from the Fre ...

s, dactyls, pantoums, praeludiums,

scherzo A scherzo (, , ; plural scherzos or scherzi), in western classical music, is a short composition – sometimes a movement from a larger work such as a symphony or a sonata. The precise definition has varied over the years, but scherzo often r ...

s, canticles and triolets. He was also the author of many

pastoral The pastoral genre of literature, art, or music depicts an idealised form of the shepherd's lifestyle – herding livestock around open areas of land according to the seasons and the changing availability of water and pasture. The target au ...

s concerning the

metaphysical Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that examines the basic structure of reality. It is traditionally seen as the study of mind-independent features of the world, but some theorists view it as an inquiry into the conceptual framework of h ...

side of village life; historiosophical songs inspired by the philosophy of Juliusz Słowacki; and exotic genesis mythologies from all over the world (from Mexico to Japan). Lange was also the author of many lyrical essays presenting original views about the relationship between poet and reader concerning eschatological issues (''Thoughts'', ''The Grave''). In the first phase of his writing he was a lover of aestheticism, formal innovation and the theories of Stéphane Mallarmé. However, later he faced to primitivism, anonymity, writings of folk poets and 16th century poets and

blank verse Blank verse is poetry written with regular metre (poetry), metrical but rhyme, unrhymed lines, usually in iambic pentameter. It has been described as "probably the most common and influential form that English poetry has taken since the 16th cen ...

. Both Lange and Jerzy Żuławski are often referred to as "The Pioneers of Polish Science-Fiction". Lange's short stories from the book (In the Fourth Dimension, 1912) such as (Grandma), (Puzzle), (The New House) and (Dr. Chang Fu Li's Report) are regarded as early examples of science fiction and weird fiction in Poland. The main themes of the stories are: hypnosis, the elixir of youth, eternal love and the materialization of phantoms. On a different note, Dr. Chang Fu Li's eponymous report, "written in Paris in 2652", is concerned with the

climate change Present-day climate change includes both global warming—the ongoing increase in Global surface temperature, global average temperature—and its wider effects on Earth's climate system. Climate variability and change, Climate change in ...

brought about by the re-routing of the

Gulf Stream The Gulf Stream is a warm and swift Atlantic ocean current that originates in the Gulf of Mexico and flows through the Straits of Florida and up the eastern coastline of the United States, then veers east near 36°N latitude (North Carolin ...

and the subsequent freezing over of Europe, with China taking over as the leading civilization. Lange's works influenced many poets of the next generation, for example: Bolesław Leśmian, Antoni Słonimski, Julian Tuwim, Julian Przyboś, Jan Lechoń, Leopold Staff. Paradoxically, most of these poets criticized Lange for his anachronism, eccentricity and overintellectualism. Lange was also a left-wing journalist. He wrote for many important Polish newspapers such as and . He created an original way of

cultural assimilation Cultural assimilation is the process in which a minority group or culture comes to resemble a society's Dominant culture, majority group or fully adopts the values, behaviors, and beliefs of another group. The melting pot model is based on this ...

for Jews via mixed marriage. Lange's numerous translations of classic 19th century literature from all over the world are still highly regarded. His translations of ''The Golem'' by Gustav Meyrink and poems by

Charles Baudelaire Charles Pierre Baudelaire (, ; ; 9 April 1821 – 31 August 1867) was a French poet, essayist, translator and art critic. His poems are described as exhibiting mastery of rhythm and rhyme, containing an exoticism inherited from the Romantics ...

Edgar Allan Poe Edgar Allan Poe (; January 19, 1809 – October 7, 1849) was an American writer, poet, editor, and literary critic who is best known for his poetry and short stories, particularly his tales involving mystery and the macabre. He is widely re ...

and George Gordon Byron are masterpieces of Polish translation. He also edited many anthologies of his own translations of Egyptian, Syrian, Persian, Arabic, Indian and Hebrew poems. His main sources of inspiration were: the poetry of the Three Bards; the theories of Stéphane Mallarmé; the writings of Charles-Marie-René Leconte de Lisle;

Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...

epics of ancient India such as '' Mahabharata'' or '' Savitri''; and the poetry of the Polish

Baroque The Baroque ( , , ) is a Western Style (visual arts), style of Baroque architecture, architecture, Baroque music, music, Baroque dance, dance, Baroque painting, painting, Baroque sculpture, sculpture, poetry, and other arts that flourished from ...

era, especially metaphysical poets such as Mikołaj Sęp Szarzyński and Józef Baka because of their obsession with death.

''Vita Nova'' and other love poems

Lange was the author of many love poems influenced by Romanticism, spiritualism and Indian mythology. Other love poems by Lange, for example ''Vita Nova'' (A New Life) written in 1898, present an original vision of a decadent and melancholy poet who momentarily becomes an Übermensch thanks to the illusion of requited love. Unfortunately, there is always a conflict between the vision of ideal love and its realisation. Lange takes also notes the "painful impossibility" of the absolute and eternal union of lovers' souls; he creates a pessimistic vision of the relationship between man and woman, which is always burdened by the certainty that complete fulfilment is impossible. In Lange's verses love always makes the subject feel as if he has been ''exiled'' from and ''deprived'' of a latent part of his own existence, but simultaneously he believes that lovers can communicate and feel the same by transmitting their pain and the power of their affection in defiance of metaphorical distance.

''Deuteronomion'', ''The Hour'', ''Logos'' and ''Sonnets of Veda''

The most characteristic feature of Lange's writings is the strong influence of Eastern traditions, religions and philosophies such as the

Veda FIle:Atharva-Veda samhita page 471 illustration.png, upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the ''Atharvaveda''. The Vedas ( or ; ), sometimes collectively called the Veda, are a large body of relig ...

Brahmin Brahmin (; ) is a ''Varna (Hinduism), varna'' (theoretical social classes) within Hindu society. The other three varnas are the ''Kshatriya'' (rulers and warriors), ''Vaishya'' (traders, merchants, and farmers), and ''Shudra'' (labourers). Th ...

ism and

. Written in 1887, the cycle of seven

sonnets A sonnet is a fixed poetic form with a structure traditionally consisting of fourteen lines adhering to a set Rhyme scheme, rhyming scheme. The term derives from the Italian word ''sonetto'' (, from the Latin word ''sonus'', ). Originating in ...

entitled ''The Sonnets of Veda'' shows the seven stages of human existence on the way to Nirvana. Similar in form to the ''Sonnets of Veda'' is the ''Logos'' cycle of ten sonnets which discuss ten points of view on the ''logos'' of history by ten outstanding representatives of the historiosophy of Polish Romanticism.There are: Józef Hoene-Wroński, Józef Gołuchowski, Adam Mickiewicz, Andrzej Towiański, Juliusz Słowacki, Zygmunt Krasiński, Henryk Cieszkowski, Bronisław Ferdynand Trentowski, Karol Libelt, Józef Kremer The poems are strongly influenced by ideas of messianism. ''The Hour'' written in 1894 was the first prose by Lange, but the short symbolic novel was published in 1895 in the first volume of ''Poems''. It is a story of

Artemis In ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology, Artemis (; ) is the goddess of the hunting, hunt, the wilderness, wild animals, transitions, nature, vegetation, childbirth, Kourotrophos, care of children, and chastity. In later tim ...

and Auora, the two

ancient Ancient history is a time period from the beginning of writing and recorded human history through late antiquity. The span of recorded history is roughly 5,000 years, beginning with the development of Sumerian cuneiform script. Ancient h ...

goddess A goddess is a female deity. In some faiths, a sacred female figure holds a central place in religious prayer and worship. For example, Shaktism (one of the three major Hinduism, Hindu sects), holds that the ultimate deity, the source of all re ...

es who descend to

Earth Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to Planetary habitability, harbor life. This is enabled by Earth being an ocean world, the only one in the Solar System sustaining liquid surface water. Almost all ...

to witness human life. In some ways ''The Hour'' is similar to August Strindberg's 1901 drama '' A Dream Play'' and '' The Woman without a Shadow'' written by Hugo von Hofmannsthal in 1919. The novel contains many mystical fragments stylized as religious writings, a

psalms The Book of Psalms ( , ; ; ; ; , in Islam also called Zabur, ), also known as the Psalter, is the first book of the third section of the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) called ('Writings'), and a book of the Old Testament. The book is an anthology of B ...

, a

manifesto A manifesto is a written declaration of the intentions, motives, or views of the issuer, be it an individual, group, political party, or government. A manifesto can accept a previously published opinion or public consensus, but many prominent ...

, greek tragedy and the ode. It also connects prose with elements of poetry and drama. One of the most representative of Lange's works is ''Deuteronomion'', a mystical

occult The occult () is a category of esoteric or supernatural beliefs and practices which generally fall outside the scope of organized religion and science, encompassing phenomena involving a 'hidden' or 'secret' agency, such as magic and mysti ...

ic poem written in Paris in 1902. It is hermetic and hard to interpret because of its many allusions to the Bible,

Kabbalah Kabbalah or Qabalah ( ; , ; ) is an esoteric method, discipline and school of thought in Jewish mysticism. It forms the foundation of Mysticism, mystical religious interpretations within Judaism. A traditional Kabbalist is called a Mekubbal ...

writings and ancient Slavic myths. It speaks of a Poet's spiritual journey to achieve an initiation that is both personal and universal. It is significant that ''Deuteronomion'' begins with the ''Epilogue to myself'' and ends with the ''Prologue to the unknown god''.

Narrative poems

Lange inaugurated a return to narrative poetry, a form which was unprecedented in Polish literature. This form of poetry was mainly used in Romanticism (for example, by George Gordon Byron and Adam Mickiewicz) and was no longer used after the late 19th century. Therefore, Lange was probably the last and only poet who wrote narrative poems in Poland. There are: * ''The Oracle'', a poem based on an Indian legend * ''Ilya Muromets'', a poem inspired by bylina * ''The Vision of Catherine of Alexandria'' Lange wrote also ''A Song of'' , a narrative poem referring to the character of . In pagan

Slavic mythology Slavic paganism, Slavic mythology, or Slavic religion refer to the Religion, religious beliefs, myths, and ritual practices of the Slavs before Christianisation of the Slavs, Christianisation, which occurred at various stages between the 8th and ...

a was a guardian spirit of clouds and a lonely dreamer who predicted the weather. It was thought that were the lost souls of those who had committed suicide and victims of murder. One would call them by sprinkling flour into the wind or fire. ''A Song of'' by Lange tells the story of a young sensitive man who lost touch with reality and set off on the path of solitary existence.

Philosophy

In Lange's cosmogony-philosophy, he announced that evolution of the soul is parallel to evolution of a nation. Capitalism is the enemy of this principle because it acts against individualism, so capitalism is the ideology of the anonymous crowd. If there is no individualism among the people, then there is also not a problem of "bad" versus "good". Then the world comes to disturb its own logic. According to Lange, a world that 'was being born' from ideal space, is still coming to the highest stage of evolution; sometime, it will return to its primary stage. Every step to evolution is a step to the ideal primary. An exception of this "rule of time-line" is the person of genius, who is between the times. In Lange's philosophy he referred to

Thomas Carlyle Thomas Carlyle (4 December 17955 February 1881) was a Scottish essayist, historian, and philosopher. Known as the "Sage writing, sage of Chelsea, London, Chelsea", his writings strongly influenced the intellectual and artistic culture of the V ...

, Giambattista Vico and

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (27 August 1770 – 14 November 1831) was a 19th-century German idealist. His influence extends across a wide range of topics from metaphysical issues in epistemology and ontology, to political philosophy and t ...

. Lange was interested in spiritualism and

to contain his own philosophy.

Critic of Romanticism

An important part of Lange's writing was the criticism of legacy of

romanticism Romanticism (also known as the Romantic movement or Romantic era) was an artistic and intellectual movement that originated in Europe towards the end of the 18th century. The purpose of the movement was to advocate for the importance of subjec ...

in modern poetry. In 1924 he founded ''Astrea'', a science-magazine and the first forum about Polish and European romanticism. Lange rejected romantic illumination. In his view, theological truth is within the reach only of erudition, intellect and afterthought. Lange criticized also the importance of

individualism Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, and social outlook that emphasizes the intrinsic worth of the individual. Individualists promote realizing one's goals and desires, valuing independence and self-reliance, and a ...

and the authorial personality. Placing the poem as an artwork at the center, as an '' eidos'' of poetry, he affirmed the ''poem's own existence'' and a ''clear idea of creation;'' therefore he disagreed with the cult of individualism.

Other works

* – a philosophical treatise about an archetypical * ("The Hour") – an

novel about the connections between the ideal and the material world, estheticism in poetry and real life, etc. * ("The Funeral of Shelley") – an ode to Percy Bysshe Shelley * ("Books of the Prophets") – a collection of cosmogonical poetry referred to

Zoroastrianism Zoroastrianism ( ), also called Mazdayasnā () or Beh-dīn (), is an Iranian religions, Iranian religion centred on the Avesta and the teachings of Zoroaster, Zarathushtra Spitama, who is more commonly referred to by the Greek translation, ...

and Islam * ''Exotica'' – an historiosophical poem about the ''genesis'' of the world, God, man and woman * ("Posthumous Verses") – a collection of early poems strongly influenced by

positivism Positivism is a philosophical school that holds that all genuine knowledge is either true by definition or positivemeaning '' a posteriori'' facts derived by reason and logic from sensory experience.John J. Macionis, Linda M. Gerber, ''Soci ...

* ("Contemplations" or "Thoughts") – a philosophical poem about the dead, strongly influenced by

poetry and decadentism * ("Drunken Ballads") – a lyrical essay about the drugs and alcohol enjoyed by decadent poets * ("Meeting") – a

frame story A frame story (also known as a frame tale, frame narrative, sandwich narrative, or intercalation) is a literary technique that serves as a companion piece to a story within a story, where an introductory or main narrative sets the stage either fo ...

about the suicide of young man after a tragic love affair * ("The Vision of Saint Catherine of Alexandria") – a lyrical story about the social and metaphysical consequences of the death of God * ("In the Fourth Dimension") – one of the first science-fiction books in Polish literature * '' Miranda'' – an

novel about tragic love and the vision of an ideal woman in an ideal civilisation of

s * ("The Wild Rose") * ("Attila") * – a play about the life of the Polish Romantic poet

Antoni Malczewski Antoni Malczewski (3 June 1793 – 2 May 1826) was a Polish romantic poet, known for his only work, "a narrative poem of dire pessimism", ''Maria'' (1825). At the times, prominent and scandalizing was his autodestructive romance with a married ...

* '' Vita Nova'' – a cycle of 11 philosophical poems about an ideal vision of love, pain and loneliness * ("Odes to Friends") – a collection of odes to Polish poets such as Jan Kasprowicz and Zenon Przesmycki

Selected translations

* English (poems from '' Alice in Wonderland'' by

Lewis Carroll Charles Lutwidge Dodgson (27 January 1832 – 14 January 1898), better known by his pen name Lewis Carroll, was an English author, poet, mathematician, photographer and reluctant Anglicanism, Anglican deacon. His most notable works are ''Alice ...

, poems of

Lord Byron George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron (22 January 1788 – 19 April 1824) was an English poet. He is one of the major figures of the Romantic movement, and is regarded as being among the greatest poets of the United Kingdom. Among his best-kno ...

, short-stories of Herbert George Wells, ''

Paradise Lost ''Paradise Lost'' is an Epic poetry, epic poem in blank verse by the English poet John Milton (1608–1674). The poem concerns the Bible, biblical story of the fall of man: the temptation of Adam and Eve by the fallen angel Satan and their ex ...

'' of John Milton, ''

Novum Organum The ''Novum Organum'', fully ''Novum Organum, sive Indicia Vera de Interpretatione Naturae'' ("New organon, or true directions concerning the interpretation of nature") or ''Instaurationis Magnae, Pars II'' ("Part II of The Great Instauratio ...

'' of

Francis Bacon Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban (; 22 January 1561 – 9 April 1626) was an English philosopher and statesman who served as Attorney General and Lord Chancellor of England under King James I. Bacon argued for the importance of nat ...

) * French (poems of Charles-Marie-René Leconte de Lisle,

, Théodore de Banville, selected works of Gustave Flaubert, poetry by

Maurice Maeterlinck Maurice Polydore Marie Bernard Maeterlinck (29 August 1862 – 6 May 1949), also known as Count/Comte Maeterlinck from 1932, was a Belgian playwright, poet, and essayist who was Flemish but wrote in French. He was awarded the 1911 Nobel Prize in ...

) * Italian (works of Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, ''New Science'' of Giambattista Vico) * German (works of

and

)

Bibliography

Poems

* (1887) * (1890) * (1890) * (1895) * (1895) * ''Logos'' (1895) * (I – 1895; II – 1898) * (1901) * (1901) * (1901) * (1902) * ''Deuteronomion'' (1902) * (1903) * (1903) * (1906) * (1907) * (1914) * ''Ilia Muromiec'' (1916) * (1925) * (1927) * (1928) * (1931) * (1931)

Novels and short stories

* (1894) * (1895) * (1907) * (1910) * (1910) * (1911) * (1912) * '' Miranda'' (1924) * (1925) * (1926) * (1926)

Plays

* (1898) * (1909) * (1931)

Essays

* (1890) * (1892) * (1895) * (1897) * (1900) * (1905) * (1905) * (1921) * (1927)

References

External links

Lange's poems in Esperanto

A poem ''Madame S...'' original written by Lange in French

Copies of the first editions of twenty books of Lange
* {{DEFAULTSORT:Lange, Antoni 1862 births 1929 deaths 19th-century Polish Jews Polish science fiction writers Polish mystery writers Symbolist poets Decadent literature Polish occultists Polish Buddhists Polish orientalists Polish translators Translators from Serbian Translators from English Jewish Polish writers Jewish philosophers Polish scholars of Buddhism Writers from Warsaw Polish male poets 19th-century Polish philosophers 20th-century Polish philosophers 20th-century Polish poets 20th-century Polish novelists