Ancient Macedonian was the language of the

ancient Macedonians The Macedonians (, ) were an ancient tribe that lived on the alluvial plain around the rivers Haliacmon and lower Vardar, Axios in the northeastern part of Geography of Greece#Mainland, mainland Greece. Essentially an Ancient Greece, ancient ...

which was either a dialect of Ancient Greek or a separate Hellenic language. It was spoken in the kingdom of Macedonia during the 1st millennium BC and belonged to the

Indo-European language family The Indo-European languages are a language family native to the northern Indian subcontinent, most of Europe, and the Iranian plateau with additional native branches found in regions such as Sri Lanka, the Maldives, parts of Central Asia (e. ...

. It gradually fell out of use during the 4th century BC, marginalized by the use of

Attic Greek Attic Greek is the Greek language, Greek dialect of the regions of ancient Greece, ancient region of Attica, including the ''polis'' of classical Athens, Athens. Often called Classical Greek, it was the prestige (sociolinguistics), prestige diale ...

by the Macedonian aristocracy, the Ancient Greek dialect that became the basis of

Koine Greek Koine Greek (, ), also variously known as Hellenistic Greek, common Attic, the Alexandrian dialect, Biblical Greek, Septuagint Greek or New Testament Greek, was the koiné language, common supra-regional form of Greek language, Greek spoken and ...

, the ''

lingua franca A lingua franca (; ; for plurals see ), also known as a bridge language, common language, trade language, auxiliary language, link language or language of wider communication (LWC), is a Natural language, language systematically used to make co ...

'' of the

Hellenistic period In classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Greek history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC, which was followed by the ascendancy of the R ...

. It became

extinct Extinction is the termination of an organism by the death of its Endling, last member. A taxon may become Functional extinction, functionally extinct before the death of its last member if it loses the capacity to Reproduction, reproduce and ...

during either the Hellenistic or Roman imperial period, and was entirely replaced by Koine Greek. While the bulk of surviving public and private inscriptions found in ancient Macedonia were written in Attic Greek (and later in Koine Greek), fragmentary documentation of a vernacular local variety comes from onomastic evidence, ancient glossaries and recent

epigraphic Epigraphy () is the study of inscriptions, or epigraphs, as writing; it is the science of identifying graphemes, clarifying their meanings, classifying their uses according to dates and cultural contexts, and drawing conclusions about the wr ...

discoveries in the Greek region of Macedonia, such as the

Pella curse tablet The Pella curse tablet is a text written in a distinct Doric Greek idiom, found in Pella, the ancient capital of Macedon, in 1986. Ιt contains a curse or magic spell (, '' katadesmos'') inscribed on a lead scroll, dated to the first half of the ...

. This local variety is usually classified by scholars as a dialect of Northwest Doric Greek, and occasionally as an

Aeolic Greek In linguistics, Aeolic Greek (), also known as Aeolian (), Lesbian or Lesbic dialect, is the set of dialects of Ancient Greek spoken mainly in Boeotia; in Thessaly; in the Aegean island of Lesbos; and in the Greek colonies of Aeolis in Anat ...

dialect or a distinct sister language of Greek.

Classification

Due to the fragmentary attestation of this dialect or language, various interpretations are possible.J. P. Mallory & D.Q Adams – ''Encyclopedia of Indo-European culture'', Chicago-London: Fitzroy Dearborn. pp. 361. Suggested classifications of ancient Macedonian include: *A Greek dialect, part of the Northwest Doric group of dialects; pioneered by (1808), and subsequently supported by Olivier Masson (1996),

Michael Meier-Brügger Michael Meier-Brügger (; born 13 August 1948) is a Swiss linguist and Indo-Europeanist. He was professor of comparative and Indo-European linguistics at the Free University of Berlin in 1996–2013. After receiving his Ph.D. from the Univers ...

(2003), Johannes Engels (2010), J. Méndez Dosuna (2012), Georgios Babiniotis (2014), Joachim Matzinger (2016), Emilio Crespo (2017), Claude Brixhe (2018), and M. B. Hatzopoulos (2020). *A Greek dialect related to, or a version of,

; suggested by August Fick (1874), Otto Hoffmann (1906), N. G. L. Hammond (1997) and Ian Worthington (2012). *A sister language of Greek, according to a scheme in which Macedonian and Greek are the two branches of a Greco-Macedonian subgroup (sometimes called " Hellenic"); suggested by Georgiev (1966),Vladimir Georgiev, "The Genesis of the Balkan Peoples", ''The Slavonic and East European Review'' 44:103:285-297 (July 1966)
"Ancient Macedonian is closely related to Greek, and Macedonian and Greek are descended from a common Greek-Macedonian idiom that was spoken till about the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. From the 4th century BC on began the Hellenization of ancient Macedonian." Joseph (2001) and Hamp (2013).

Properties

Because of the fragmentary sources of Ancient Macedonian, only a little is understood about the special features of the language. A notable sound-law is that the

Proto-Indo-European Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family. No direct record of Proto-Indo-European exists; its proposed features have been derived by linguistic reconstruction from documented Indo-Euro ...

voiced Voice or voicing is a term used in phonetics and phonology to characterize speech sounds (usually consonants). Speech sounds can be described as either voiceless (otherwise known as ''unvoiced'') or voiced. The term, however, is used to refe ...

aspirates (/bʰ, dʰ, gʰ/) sometimes appear as voiced stops /b, d, g/, (written ), whereas they were generally unvoiced as /pʰ, tʰ, kʰ/ () elsewhere in Ancient Greek. *Macedonian ''dánοs'' ('

death Death is the end of life; the irreversible cessation of all biological functions that sustain a living organism. Death eventually and inevitably occurs in all organisms. The remains of a former organism normally begin to decompose sh ...

', from PIE 'to leave'), compared to

Attic An attic (sometimes referred to as a '' loft'') is a space found directly below the pitched roof of a house or other building. It is also known as a ''sky parlor'' or a garret. Because they fill the space between the ceiling of a building's t ...

*Macedonian ''abroûtes'' or ''abroûwes'', compared to Attic for 'eyebrows' *Macedonian '' Bereníkē'', compared to Attic , 'bearing victory' (Personal name) *Macedonian ''adraia'' ('bright weather'), compared to Attic , from PIE *Macedonian ''báskioi'' ('

fasces A fasces ( ; ; a , from the Latin word , meaning 'bundle'; ) is a bound bundle of wooden rods, often but not always including an axe (occasionally two axes) with its blade emerging. The fasces is an Italian symbol that had its origin in the Etrus ...

'), compared to Attic 'leather sack', from PIE *According to

Herodotus Herodotus (; BC) was a Greek historian and geographer from the Greek city of Halicarnassus (now Bodrum, Turkey), under Persian control in the 5th century BC, and a later citizen of Thurii in modern Calabria, Italy. He wrote the '' Histori ...

7.73 (), the Macedonians claimed that the '' Phryges'' were called ''Bryges'' before they migrated from

Thrace Thrace (, ; ; ; ) is a geographical and historical region in Southeast Europe roughly corresponding to the province of Thrace in the Roman Empire. Bounded by the Balkan Mountains to the north, the Aegean Sea to the south, and the Black Se ...

Anatolia Anatolia (), also known as Asia Minor, is a peninsula in West Asia that makes up the majority of the land area of Turkey. It is the westernmost protrusion of Asia and is geographically bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Aegean ...

(around 8th–7th century BC). *According to

Plutarch Plutarch (; , ''Ploútarchos'', ; – 120s) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo (Delphi), Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for his ''Parallel Lives'', ...

, Moralia Macedonians use 'b' instead of 'ph', while

Delphi Delphi (; ), in legend previously called Pytho (Πυθώ), was an ancient sacred precinct and the seat of Pythia, the major oracle who was consulted about important decisions throughout the ancient Classical antiquity, classical world. The A ...

ans use 'b' in the place of 'p'. *Macedonian ''mágeiros'' ('butcher') was a loan from Doric into

. Vittore Pisani has suggested an ultimately Macedonian origin for the word, which could then be cognate to ('knife', < PIE , 'to fight') If ''gotán'' ('pig') is related to

Proto-Hellenic The Proto-Greek language (also known as Proto-Hellenic) is the Indo-European language which was the last common ancestor of all varieties of Greek, including Mycenaean Greek, the subsequent ancient Greek dialects (i.e., Attic, Ionic, Aeol ...

noun ''*gʷous'', and hence to PIE noun ''*gʷṓws'' ('cattle'), this would indicate that the labiovelars were either intact, or merged with the velars, unlike the usual Greek treatment (Attic ). Such deviations, however, are not unknown in Greek dialects; compare Laconian Doric (the dialect of Sparta) for common Greek , as well as Doric and Ionic for common Greek .Albrecht von Blumenthal, ''Hesychstudien'', Stuttgart, 1930, 21. A number of examples suggest that voiced velar stops were devoiced, especially word-initially: ''kánadoi'', 'jaws' (< PIE ); , 'molars' (< PIE ); within words: ''arkón'' (Attic ); the Macedonian

toponym Toponymy, toponymics, or toponomastics is the study of ''wikt:toponym, toponyms'' (proper names of places, also known as place names and geographic names), including their origins, meanings, usage, and types. ''Toponym'' is the general term for ...

, from the Pierian name ''Akesamenos'' (if ''Akesa-'' is cognate to Greek , , "to astonish"; cf. the Thracian name ). In

Aristophanes Aristophanes (; ; ) was an Ancient Greece, Ancient Greek Ancient Greek comedy, comic playwright from Classical Athens, Athens. He wrote in total forty plays, of which eleven survive virtually complete today. The majority of his surviving play ...

' ''The Birds'', the form ('red head', the name of a bird, perhaps the goldfinch or redpoll) is found, showing a Macedonian-style voiced stop in place of a standard Greek unvoiced aspirate: versus ('head'). Emilio Crespo, a researcher at the Autonomous University of Madrid, wrote that "the voicing of voiceless stops and the development of aspirates into voiced fricatives turns out to be the outcome of an internal development of Macedonian as a dialect of Greek" without excluding "the presence of interference from other languages or of any linguistic substrate or adstrate", as also argued by M. Hatzopoulos. A number of the Macedonian words, particularly in Hesychius of Alexandria' lexicon, are disputed (i.e., some do not consider them actual Macedonian words) and some may have been corrupted in the transmission. Thus ''abroutes'', may be read as (), with tau () replacing a

digamma Digamma or wau (uppercase: Ϝ, lowercase: ϝ, numeral: ϛ) is an Archaic Greek alphabets, archaic letter of the Greek alphabet. It originally stood for the sound but it has remained in use principally as a Greek numeral for 6 (number), 6. Whe ...

. If so, this word would perhaps be encompassable within a Greek dialect; however, others (e.g. A. Meillet) see the dental as authentic and think that this specific word would perhaps belong to an Indo-European language different from Greek. A. Panayotou summarizes some features generally identified through ancient texts and epigraphy:A history of ancient Greek: from the beginnings to late antiquity, Maria Chritē, Maria Arapopoulou, Cambridge University Press (2007), p. 439–441

Phonology

*Occasional development of voiced aspirates (*b^h, *d^h, *g^h) into voiced stops (b, d, g) (e.g. Βερενίκα, Attic Φερενίκη) *Retention of */aː/ (e.g. Μαχάτας), also present in Epirotic Packard Institute epigraphic database
* ːas a result of contraction between ːand �ː*Apocope of short vowels in prepositions in synthesis (, Attic ) *Syncope (hyphairesis) and diphthongization are used to avoid hiatus (e.g. , Attic ; compare with Epirotic , Doric ). *Occasional retention of the pronunciation of /u(ː)/ in local cult epithets or nicknames ( = ) *Raising of /ɔː/ to /uː/ in proximity to nasal (e.g. , Attic ) *Simplification of the sequence /ign/ to /iːn/ (γίνομαι, Attic ) *Loss of aspiration of the consonant cluster /st^h/ (> /st/) (, Attic )

Morphology

Ancient Macedonian morphology is shared with ancient Epirus, including some of the oldest inscriptions from

Dodona Dodona (; , Ionic Greek, Ionic and , ) in Epirus in northwestern Greece was the oldest Ancient Greece, Hellenic oracle, possibly dating to the 2nd millennium BCE according to Herodotus. The earliest accounts in Homer describe Dodona as an oracle ...

. The morphology of the first declension nouns with an -ας ending is also shared with Thessalian (e.g. Epitaph for Pyrrhiadas, Kierion). *First-declension masculine and feminine in -ας and -α respectively (e.g. , ) *First-declension masculine genitive singular in -α (e.g. ) *First-declension genitive plural in -ᾶν *First person personal pronoun dative singular *Temporal conjunction *Possibly, a non-sigmatic nominative masculine singular in the first declension (, Attic )

Onomastics

Anthroponymy

M. Hatzopoulos and Johannes Engels summarize the Macedonian anthroponymy (that is names borne by people from Macedonia before the expansion beyond the Axios or people undoubtedly hailing from this area after the expansion) as follows: *Epichoric (local) Greek names that either differ from the phonology of the introduced Attic or that remained almost confined to Macedonians throughout antiquity *Panhellenic (common) Greek names *Identifiable non-Greek (Thracian and Illyrian) names *Names without a ''clear'' Greek etymology that can't however be ascribed to any identifiable non-Greek linguistic group. Common in the creation of ethnics is the use of -έστης, -εστός especially when derived from sigmatic nouns (ὄρος > Ὀρέστης but also Δῖον > Διασταί). Per Engels, the above material supports that Macedonian anthroponymy was predominantly Greek in character.

Toponymy

The toponyms of Macedonia proper are generally Greek, though some of them show a particular phonology and a few others are non-Greek.

Calendar

The Macedonian calendar's origins go back to Greek prehistory. The names of the Macedonian months, just like most of the names of Greek months, are derived from feasts and related celebrations in honor of the Greek gods. Most of them combine a Macedonian dialectal form with a clear Greek etymology (e.g Δῐός from

Zeus Zeus (, ) is the chief deity of the List of Greek deities, Greek pantheon. He is a sky father, sky and thunder god in ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology, who rules as king of the gods on Mount Olympus. Zeus is the child ...

; Περίτιος from

Heracles Heracles ( ; ), born Alcaeus (, ''Alkaios'') or Alcides (, ''Alkeidēs''), was a Divinity, divine hero in Greek mythology, the son of ZeusApollodorus1.9.16/ref> and Alcmene, and the foster son of Amphitryon.By his adoptive descent through ...

Peritas (“Guardian”) ; Ξανδικός/Ξανθικός from Xanthos, “the blond” (probably a reference to Heracles); Άρτεμίσιος from

Artemis In ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology, Artemis (; ) is the goddess of the hunting, hunt, the wilderness, wild animals, transitions, nature, vegetation, childbirth, Kourotrophos, care of children, and chastity. In later tim ...

etc.) with the possible exception of one, which is attested in other Greek calendars as well. According to Martin P. Nilsson, the Macedonian calendar is formed like a regular Greek one and the names of the months attest the Greek nationality of the Macedonians.

Epigraphy

Macedonian onomastics: the earliest epigraphical documents attesting substantial numbers of Macedonian proper names are the second

Athenian Athens ( ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Greece, largest city of Greece. A significant coastal urban area in the Mediterranean, Athens is also the capital of the Attica (region), Attica region and is the southe ...

alliance decree with Perdiccas II (~417–413 BC), the decree of Kalindoia (~335–300 BC) and seven curse tablets of the 4th century BC bearing mostly names. Oktadrachm of Alexander I 498 – 454 BCE.jpg, Octadrachm of Alexander I of Macedon, early 5th century B.C. Coin of Perdikas II - 451-413 BCE.jpg,

Stater The stater (; ) was an ancient coin used in various regions of Greece. The term is also used for similar coins, imitating Greek staters, minted elsewhere in ancient Europe. History The stater, as a Greek silver currency, first as ingots, and ...

of Perdiccas II of Macedon, mid to late 5th century B.C. Pellatab.jpg, The

, 4th century B.C. Ancient Greek binding spell, 4th century B.C., Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki.jpg, Binding spell, 4th century B.C., Oraiokastro Relief inscribed stele, mid 4th century B.C., Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki.jpg, Funerary stele, with an epigram on the top, mid 4th century B.C.,

Vergina Vergina (, ) is a small town in Northern Greece, part of the Veria municipality in Imathia, Central Macedonia. Vergina was established in 1922 in the aftermath of the Population exchange between Greece and Turkey, population exchanges after t ...

About 99% of the roughly 6,300 inscriptions discovered by archaeologists within the confines of ancient Macedonia were written in the Greek language, using the

Greek alphabet The Greek alphabet has been used to write the Greek language since the late 9th or early 8th century BC. It was derived from the earlier Phoenician alphabet, and is the earliest known alphabetic script to systematically write vowels as wel ...

. The legends in all currently discovered coins also in Greek. The

, a text written in a distinct

Doric Greek Doric or Dorian (), also known as West Greek, was a group of Ancient Greek dialects; its Variety (linguistics), varieties are divided into the Doric proper and Northwest Doric subgroups. Doric was spoken in a vast area, including northern Greec ...

dialect, found in 1986 and dated to between mid to early 4th century BC, has been forwarded as an argument that the ancient Macedonian language was a dialect of North-Western Greek, part of the Doric dialect group.

Hesychius' glossary

A body of idiomatic words has been assembled from ancient sources, mainly from coin inscriptions, and from the 5th century lexicon of Hesychius of Alexandria, amounting to about 150 words and 200 proper names, though the number of considered words sometimes differs from scholar to scholar. The majority of these words can be confidently assigned to Greek albeit some words would appear to reflect a dialectal form of Greek. There are, however, a number of words that are not easily identifiable as Greek and reveal, for example, voiced stops where Greek shows voiceless aspirates. marked words which have been corrupted. *
abagna
' 'roses amaranta (unwithered)' (

''rhoda'',

Aeolic In linguistics, Aeolic Greek (), also known as Aeolian (), Lesbian or Lesbic dialect, is the set of dialects of Ancient Greek spoken mainly in Boeotia; in Thessaly; in the Aegean island of Lesbos; and in the Greek colonies of Aeolis in Anat ...

''broda'' roses). ( LSJ
amarantos
unfading.

Amaranth ''Amaranthus'' is a cosmopolitan distribution, cosmopolitan group of more than 50 species which make up the genus of annual plant, annual or short-lived perennial plants collectively known as amaranths. Some names include "prostrate pigweed" an ...

flower. (

aba
' 'youthful prime' + ''hagnos'' 'pure, chaste, unsullied) or epithet ''aphagna'' fro
aphagnizo
'purify'. If ''abagnon'' is the proper name for ''rhodon'' rose, then it is cognate to Persian , 'garden', Gothic 'tree' and Greekbr>bakanon
'cabbage-seed'. Finally, a Phrygian borrowing is highly possible if we think of the famous Gardens of

Midas Midas (; ) was a king of Phrygia with whom many myths became associated, as well as two later members of the Phrygian royal house. His father was Gordias, and his mother was Cybele. The most famous King Midas is popularly remembered in Greek m ...

, where roses grow of themselves (see Herodotus 8.138.2, Athenaeus 15.683) *
abarknai
'
komai
''abarkna'' hunger, famine). *
abarú
' '

oregano Oregano (, ; ''Origanum vulgare'') is a species of flowering plant in the mint family, Lamiaceae. It was native to the Mediterranean region, but widely naturalised elsewhere in the temperate climate, temperate Northern Hemisphere. Oregano is a ...

' (Hes. ''origanon'') ( LSJ:
barú
' perfume used in incense, Attic ''barú'' 'heavy') (LSJ
amarakon
sweet Origanum Majorana) (Hes. for origanon ''agribrox'', ''abromon'', ''artiphos'', ''keblênê'') *, ''abloē'', ''alogei'' Text Corrupted
spendô
* or ''abroûtes'' or ''abroûwes'' 'eyebrows' (Hes. Attic ''ophrûs'' acc. pl.,
ophrúes
' nom., PIE *) ( Serbian , Lithuanian , Persian ) (

br>ophrudia

Modern Greek Modern Greek (, or , ), generally referred to by speakers simply as Greek (, ), refers collectively to the dialects of the Greek language spoken in the modern era, including the official standardized form of the language sometimes referred to ...

) *
ankalis
' Attic 'weight, burden, load' Macedonian '

sickle A sickle, bagging hook, reaping-hook or grasshook is a single-handed agricultural tool designed with variously curved blades and typically used for harvesting or reaping grain crops, or cutting Succulent plant, succulent forage chiefly for feedi ...

' (Hes. Attic ''ákhthos'', ''drépanon'', LSJ Attic ''ankalís'' 'bundle', or in pl. ''ankálai'' 'arms' (body parts), ''ánkalos'' 'armful, bundle', ''ankálē'' 'the bent arm' or 'anything closely enfolding', as the arms of the sea, PIE * 'to bend') (
ankylis
' 'barb' Oppianus.C.1.155.) * ''addai'' poles of a chariot or car, logs (Atti
ῥυμοὶ
rhumoi) (Aeolic
usdoi
', Attic ozoi, branches, twigs) PIE , branch * ''adē'' 'clear sky' or 'the upper air' (Hes. ''ouranós'' 'sky', LSJ and Pokorny Attic ''aithēr'' 'ether, the upper, purer air', hence 'clear sky, heaven') *
adiskon
' potion, cocktail (Atti
kykeôn
*
adraia
' 'fine weather, open sky' (Hes. Attic ''aithría'', Epirotan , PIE *aidh-) * ''Aeropes'' tribe (wind-faced)
aero-opsisaerops
opos,

Boeotia Boeotia ( ), sometimes Latinisation of names, Latinized as Boiotia or Beotia (; modern Greek, modern: ; ancient Greek, ancient: ), is one of the regional units of Greece. It is part of the modern regions of Greece, region of Central Greece (adm ...

n name for the bird merops) * ''akontion'' spine or backbone, anything ridged like the backbone: ridge of a hill or mountain (Atti
rhachis
(Atti
akontion
spear, javelin) (Aeolic akontion part of troops) *
akrea
' girl (Attic korê, Ionic kourê, Doric/Aeolic kora, Arcadian korwa, Laconian kyrsanis (, epithet of Aphrodite in Cyprus, instead of Akraia, of the heights). Epithet of a goddess from an archaic Corcyraic inscription (). *
akrounoi
' 'boundary stones' nom. pl. (Hes. ''hóroi'', LSJ Attic ''ákron'' 'at the end or extremity', from ''akē'' 'point, edge', PIE * 'summit, point' or 'sharp') *
alíē
' 'boar or boarfish' (Attic kapros) ( PIE */* "red, brown" (in animal and tree names) (Homeri
ellos
fawn, Attic ''elaphos'' 'deer',
alkê
' elk) *
aliza
' (also ''alixa'') '

White Poplar White poplar is a common name used to refer to several trees in the genus ''Populus ''Populus'' is a genus of 25–30 species of deciduous flowering plants in the family Salicaceae, native to most of the Northern Hemisphere. English names vari ...

' (Attic ''leúkē'', Epirotan , Thessalian ''alphinia'', LSJ
, aluza
globularia alypum) ( Pokorny Attic ''elátē'' '

fir Firs are evergreen coniferous trees belonging to the genus ''Abies'' () in the family Pinaceae. There are approximately 48–65 extant species, found on mountains throughout much of North and Central America, Eurasia, and North Africa. The genu ...

spruce A spruce is a tree of the genus ''Picea'' ( ), a genus of about 40 species of coniferous evergreen trees in the family Pinaceae, found in the northern temperate and boreal ecosystem, boreal (taiga) regions of the Northern hemisphere. ''Picea'' ...

', PIE *, *, P.Gmc. and Span. '

alder Alders are trees of the genus ''Alnus'' in the birch family Betulaceae. The genus includes about 35 species of monoecious trees and shrubs, a few reaching a large size, distributed throughout the north temperate zone with a few species ex ...

') *
axos
' 'timber' (Hes. Attic
hulê
') (

Cretan Crete ( ; , Modern Greek, Modern: , Ancient Greek, Ancient: ) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the List of islands by area, 88th largest island in the world and the List of islands in the Mediterranean#By area, fifth la ...

Doricbr>ausos
Attic alsos 'grove' little forest. ( PIE *' ash tree ( OE. ash tree), (Greek ''οξυά oxya'', Albanian , beech), (

Armenian Armenian may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to Armenia, a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia * Armenians, the national people of Armenia, or people of Armenian descent ** Armenian diaspora, Armenian communities around the ...

ash tree) *
aortês
', 'swordsman' (Hes. ξιφιστής;

Homer Homer (; , ; possibly born ) was an Ancient Greece, Ancient Greek poet who is credited as the author of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'', two epic poems that are foundational works of ancient Greek literature. Despite doubts about his autho ...

br>
''áor'' 'sword'; Atti

''aortēr'' 'swordstrap',

''aortír'' 'riflestrap'; hence

aorta The aorta ( ; : aortas or aortae) is the main and largest artery in the human body, originating from the Ventricle (heart), left ventricle of the heart, branching upwards immediately after, and extending down to the abdomen, where it splits at ...

) (According to Suidas: Many now say the knapsack ''
abertê
instead o
aortê
Both the object and the word reMacedonian. * Αrantides

Erinyes The Erinyes ( ; , ), also known as the Eumenides (, the "Gracious ones"), are chthonic goddesses of vengeance in ancient Greek religion and mythology. A formulaic oath in the ''Iliad'' invokes them as "the Erinyes, that under earth tak ...

(in dativebr>
) (Arae name for Erinyes
arasimos
accursed
araomai
invoke, curse, pray o
rhantizô
sprinkle, purify. * ''argella'' 'bathing hut'.

Cimmerian The Cimmerians were an Ancient Iranian peoples, ancient Eastern Iranian languages, Eastern Iranian peoples, Iranic Eurasian nomads, equestrian nomadic people originating in the Pontic–Caspian steppe, part of whom subsequently migrated into W ...

or ''argila'' 'subterranean dwelling' ( Ephorus in Strb. 5.4.5) PIE *'; borrowed into Balkan Latin and gave Romanian (pl. ), "wooden hut", dialectal (Banat) "stud farm"); cf.

Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...

'latch, bolt',

Old English Old English ( or , or ), or Anglo-Saxon, is the earliest recorded form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the Early Middle Ages. It developed from the languages brought to Great Britain by Anglo-S ...

"building, house", Albanian "harrow, crude bridge of crossbars, crude raft supported by skin bladders" *
argiopous
' '

eagle Eagle is the common name for the golden eagle, bald eagle, and other birds of prey in the family of the Accipitridae. Eagles belong to several groups of Genus, genera, some of which are closely related. True eagles comprise the genus ''Aquila ( ...

' ( LSJ Attic ''argípous'' 'swift- or white-footed', PIE *' < PIE * + PIE *) * ''Arētos'' epithet or alternative of Herakles (

Ares Ares (; , ''Árēs'' ) is the List of Greek deities, Greek god of war god, war and courage. He is one of the Twelve Olympians, and the son of Zeus and Hera. The Greeks were ambivalent towards him. He embodies the physical valor necessary for ...

-like) *
arkon
' 'leisure, idleness' ( LSJ Attic ''argós'' 'lazy, idle' nom. sing., acc.) *
arhphys
' (Atti
ἱμάς
himas strap, rope),
ἁρπεδών
harpedôn cord,

yarn Yarn is a long continuous length of interlocked fibres, used in sewing, crocheting, knitting, weaving, embroidery, ropemaking, and the production of textiles. '' Thread'' is a type of yarn intended for sewing by hand or machine. Modern ...

; ἁρπεδόνα Rhodes, Lindos II 2.37). *
aspilos
' 'torrent' (Hes. ''kheímarrhos'', Attic ''áspilos'' 'without stain, spotless, pure') *
babrên
' lees of olive-oil ( LSJ: babrêkes gums, or food in the teeth, babuas mud) *
bathara
' pukliê (Macedonian), purlos (Athamanian) (unattested; maybe food
atharê
porridge
pyros
wheat) *
birrhox
' dense, thick (LSJ
βειρόν beiron
*
garka
' rod (Atti
charax
( EM
garkon
axle-pin) (LSJ
garrha
rod) * '' gola'' o
goda
bowels, intestines ( Homericbr>cholades
PIE: , stomach; bowels *
gotan
' ' pig' acc. sing. (PIE *' 'cattle', (Attic ''botón'' ' beast', in plural ''botá'' 'grazing animals') (

Laconian Laconia or Lakonia may refer to: Places * Laconia, a region of Greece * Laconia (constituency), an electoral district of Greece **Doric_Greek#Laconian, Laconian Greek, a dialect of Doric Greek United States * Laconia, Indiana * Laconia, New Hamp ...

br>grôna
'sow' female pig, and pl. grônades) (LSJ
goi, goi
to imitate the sound of pigs)
goita
sheep or pig) *
gyllas
' kind of glass
gyalas
a Megarian cup) *
gôps
' pl. gopes macherel (Attic koloios) (LSJ
skôps
a fish) (

gopa ' bogue' fish pl. gopes) * ''daitas'' caterer waiter (Atti
daitros
*
danos
' '

', (Hes. Attic ''thánatos'' 'death', from root ''than-''), PIE * 'to leave, ''danotês'' (disaster, pain)

Sophocles Sophocles ( 497/496 – winter 406/405 BC)Sommerstein (2002), p. 41. was an ancient Greek tragedian known as one of three from whom at least two plays have survived in full. His first plays were written later than, or contemporary with, those ...

Lacaenae fr.338 * ''danōn'' 'murderer' (Attic thanōn dead, past participle) *
darullos
' 'oak' (Hes. Attic ''drûs'', PIE *) * ''drêes'' or
drêges
' small birds (Attic strouthoi) ( Eleanbr>δειρήτης deirêtês
strouthos,

Nicander Nicander of Colophon (; fl. 2nd century BC) was a Greece, Greek poet, physician, and grammarian. The scattered biographical details in the ancient sources are so contradictory that it was sometimes assumed that there were two Hellenistic authors ...

.Fr.123.) ( LSJ
διγῆρες digêres
strouthoi
δρίξ drix
strouthos) *
dôrax
' spleen
splên
(Attic θώρα�
thôrax
chest, corslet *
epideipnis
' Macedonian dessert * ''Zeirênis'' epithet or alternative for

Aphrodite Aphrodite (, ) is an Greek mythology, ancient Greek goddess associated with love, lust, beauty, pleasure, passion, procreation, and as her syncretism, syncretised Roman counterpart , desire, Sexual intercourse, sex, fertility, prosperity, and ...

Seirênis
Siren-like) *
Êmathia
' ex-name of Macedonia, region of Emathia from mythological Emathus (Homeri
amathosêmathoessa
river-sandy land, PIE *. Generally the coastal Lower Macedonia in contrast to mountainous Upper Macedonia. For ''meadow land'' (''mē-2, m-e-t-'' to reap), see Pokorny. * ''Thaulos'' epithet or alternative of

( ''Thaulia'' 'festival in Doric Tarentum, ''thaulizein'' 'to celebrate like

Dorians The Dorians (; , , singular , ) were one of the four major ethnic groups into which the Greeks, Hellenes (or Greeks) of Classical Greece divided themselves (along with the Aeolians, Achaeans (tribe), Achaeans, and Ionians). They are almost alw ...

', Thessalian ''Zeus Thaulios'', the only attested in epigraphy ten times,

''Zeus Thaulôn'', Athenian family ''Thaulônidai'' *
Thourides
'

Nymphs A nymph (; ; sometimes spelled nymphe) is a minor female nature deity in ancient Greek folklore. Distinct from other Greek goddesses, nymphs are generally regarded as personifications of nature; they are typically tied to a specific place, land ...

Muses In ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology, the Muses (, ) were the Artistic inspiration, inspirational goddesses of literature, science, and the arts. They were considered the source of the knowledge embodied in the poetry, lyric p ...

(Homeri
thouros
rushing, impetuous. *
izela
' wish, good luck (Attic agathêi tychêi) (Dori
baleabale
Arcadianbr>zele
(Creta
delton
agathon) or

Thracian The Thracians (; ; ) were an Indo-European speaking people who inhabited large parts of Southeast Europe in ancient history.. "The Thracians were an Indo-European people who occupied the area that today is shared between north-eastern Greece, ...

br>zelas
wine. * ''ílax'' 'the holm-oak, evergreen or scarlet oak' (Hes. Attic ''prînos'',

Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...

'' ilex'') *
in dea
' midday (Atti
endia
mesêmbria) (Arcadian also ''in'' instead of Attic ''en'') *''
kancharmon
having the lance up (Hes.
ancharmon
' Ibyc? Stes?) having upwards the point of a spear) *,

Crasis Crasis (; from the Greek , ); cf. , "I mix" ''wine with water''; '' kratēr'' "mixing-bowl" is related. is a type of contraction in which two vowels or diphthongs merge into one new vowel or diphthong, making one word out of two ( univerbation). ...

br>kai
and, together, simultaneously
anô
up
anôchmon
hortatory password *
karabos
' **Macedonian 'gate, door' (Cf
karphos
any small dry body,piece of wood (Hes. Attic 'meat roasted over coals'; Attic ''karabos'' 'stag-beetle'; 'crayfish'; 'light ship'; hence modern Greek ''karávi'') **'the worms in dry wood' (Attic 'stag-beetle, horned beetle; crayfish') **'a sea creature' (Attic 'crayfish, prickly crustacean; stag-beetle') *
karpaia
' Thessalo-Macedonian mimic military dance (see also Carpaea) Homericbr>karpalimos
swift (for foot) eager, ravenous. * ''kíkerroi'' 'chick-peas' (Hes. Attic ''ōkhroi'', PIE * 'pea') ( LSJ
kikeros
land

crocodile Crocodiles (family (biology), family Crocodylidae) or true crocodiles are large, semiaquatic reptiles that live throughout the tropics in Africa, Asia, the Americas and Australia. The term "crocodile" is sometimes used more loosely to include ...

) * ''kommarai'' or komarai crawfishes (Attic karides) (LSJ
kammaros
a kind of lobster, Epicharmus.60, Sophron.26, Rhinthon.18:-- also kammaris, idos

Galen Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus (; September 129 – AD), often Anglicization, anglicized as Galen () or Galen of Pergamon, was a Ancient Rome, Roman and Greeks, Greek physician, surgeon, and Philosophy, philosopher. Considered to be one o ...

.6.735.)
komaris
a fish Epicharmus.47.) *
komboi
' 'molars' (Attic ''gomphioi'', dim. of
gomphos
' 'a large, wedge-shaped bolt or nail; any bond or fastening', PIE *gombh-) *
kynoupes
' or kynoutos bear (Hesychius kynoupeus, knoupeus, knôpeus)
kunôpês
dog-faced)
knôps
beast esp. serpent instead of kinôpeton, blind acc. Zonar (fro
knephas
dark) (if ''kynoutos'
knôdêsknôdalon
beast) *
lakedáma
' salty water wit
alix
rice-wheat or fish-sauce.(C
skorodalmê
'sauce or pickle composed of brine and garlic'). According to Albrecht von Blumenthal, ''-ama'' corresponds to Attic ''halmurós'' 'salty';

Doricbr>hauma
for Attic halmē; ''laked-'' is cognate to

Proto-Germanic Proto-Germanic (abbreviated PGmc; also called Common Germanic) is the linguistic reconstruction, reconstructed proto-language of the Germanic languages, Germanic branch of the Indo-European languages. Proto-Germanic eventually developed from ...

leek A leek is a vegetable, a cultivar of ''Allium ampeloprasum'', the broadleaf wild leek (synonym (taxonomy), syn. ''Allium porrum''). The edible part of the plant is a bundle of Leaf sheath, leaf sheaths that is sometimes erroneously called a "s ...

, possibly related is ''Laked-aímōn'', the name of the

Sparta Sparta was a prominent city-state in Laconia in ancient Greece. In antiquity, the city-state was known as Lacedaemon (), while the name Sparta referred to its main settlement in the Evrotas Valley, valley of Evrotas (river), Evrotas rive ...

n land. * ''leíbēthron'' 'stream' (Hes. Attic ''rheîthron'', also ''libádion'', 'a small stream', dim. of ''libás''; PIE *lei, 'to flow'); typical Greek productive suffix (''-thron'') (Macedonian toponym, Pierian Leibethra place/tomb of

Orpheus In Greek mythology, Orpheus (; , classical pronunciation: ) was a Thracians, Thracian bard, legendary musician and prophet. He was also a renowned Ancient Greek poetry, poet and, according to legend, travelled with Jason and the Argonauts in se ...

) *
mattuês
' kind of bird ( ''mattuê'' a meat-dessert of Macedonian or Thessalian origin) (verb ''mattuazo'' to prepare the ''mattue'') (Athenaeus) *
paraos
' eagle or kind of eagle (Attic aetos, Pamphylian aibetos) ( PIE * 'going, passage' + * 'bird') (Greek para- 'beside' + Hes
aos
wind) (It may exist as food in Lopado...pterygon) * '' peripeteia'' or
peritia
' Macedonian festival in month Peritios. (Hesychius text ) *
rhamata
' bunch of grapes ( Ionic rhagmata, rhages Koine rhôgmata, rhôges
rhax rhôx
*
rhouto
' this (neut.) (Attic
touto
* ''tagonaga'' Macedonian institution, administration (Thessalian
tagos
commander
agô
lead)

Other sources

*
aigipops
' eagle ( EM 28.19) (error for argipous? maybe goat-eater
aix ,aigos

pepsis
digestion) (Cf.eagl
chelônophagos
turtle-eater) *
argyraspides
' (wiki Argyraspides
chrysaspides
an
chalkaspides
(golden and bronze-shielded) *
dramis
' a Macedonian bread ( Thessalian bread
daratos
')( Athamanian bread ''dramix''. (Athenaeus) *
kausia
'

felt Felt is a textile that is produced by matting, condensing, and pressing fibers together. Felt can be made of natural fibers such as wool or animal fur, or from synthetic fibers such as petroleum-based acrylic fiber, acrylic or acrylonitrile or ...

hat used by Macedonians, forming part of the regalia of the kings. *
koios
' number (Athenaeus when talking about Koios, the

Titan Titan most often refers to: * Titan (moon), the largest moon of Saturn * Titans, a race of deities in Greek mythology Titan or Titans may also refer to: Arts and entertainment Fictional entities Fictional locations * Titan in fiction, fictiona ...

of intelligence; ''and the Macedonians use koios as synonymous wit
arithmos
' (LSJ
koeô
mark, perceive, hea
koiazô
pledge, Hes. compose s.v. ) (

Laocoön Laocoön (; , , gen.: ) is a figure in Greek mythology, Greek and Roman mythology and the Epic Cycle. Laocoön is a Troy, Trojan priest. He and his two young sons are attacked by giant serpents sent by the gods when Laocoön argued against bri ...

, ''thyoskoos'' observer of sacrifices, ''akouô'' hear) (All from PIE root *keu to notice, observe, feel; to hear). *
pezetairoi
' (wiki Pezhetairoi), Hetairidia, Macedonian religious festival (Atti

(Aeoli

* ''Púdna'', Pydna toponym ( Pokorny Attic ''puthmēn'' 'bottom, sole, base of a vessel'; PIE *; Atti

''pýndax'' 'bottom of vessel') (

,''Pytna'' ''

Hierapytna Hierapytna ( or Ἱερὰ Πύτνα), also Hierapydna (Ἱεράπυδνα), Hierapydnes (Ἱερά Πύδνης), or Hiera, was a town of ancient Crete. Strabo says that it stood in the narrowest part of the island, opposite Minoa (Crete), Mino ...

'', Sacred Pytna) *
sigynos
' spear ( Cypriotic sigynon) ( Illyria
sibyne
(Origin: Illyrian acc. to Fest.p. 453 L., citing Ennius) (

Cyprian Cyprian (; ; to 14 September 258 AD''The Liturgy of the Hours according to the Roman Rite: Vol. IV.'' New York: Catholic Book Publishing Company, 1975. p. 1406.) was a bishop of Carthage and an early Christian writer of Berbers, Berber descent, ...

acc. to

and

Aristotle Aristotle (; 384–322 BC) was an Ancient Greek philosophy, Ancient Greek philosopher and polymath. His writings cover a broad range of subjects spanning the natural sciences, philosophy, linguistics, economics, politics, psychology, a ...

Il. cc., Scythian acc. to Sch.Par.A.R.4.320 (cf. 111) *
sphuraina
', hammer-fish sphyraena ( Strattis, Makedones (fr. 28) – (Attic. κέστρα
kestra
(cestra, needle-fish (modern Greek fish σφυρίδα, sfyrida) *
uetês
' of the same year

Marsyas In Greek mythology, the satyr Marsyas (; ) is a central figure in two stories involving music: in one, he picked up the double oboe (''aulos'') that had been abandoned by Athena and played it; in the other, he challenged Apollo to a contest of ...

(Attic autoetês, Poetic oietês) *
charôn
' lion (Attic/Poetic fierce, for lion, eagle instead o
charoposcharops
bright-eyed)

Proposed

''A number of Hesychius words are listed orphan; some of them have been proposed as Macedonian'' *
agerda
' wild pear-tree (Attic
acherdos
'). * ''adalos'' charcoal dust (Attic aithalos, asbolos) * ''addee'' imp. hurry up (Attic ''thee'' o
theô
run) *
adis
' 'hearth' (Hes. ''eskhára'', LSJ Attic ''aîthos'' 'fire, burning heat') * ''aidôssa'' (Atti
aithousa
portico, corridor, verandah, a loggia leading from aulê ''yard'' to prodomos) *
baskioi
' '

' (Hes. Attic ''desmoì phrūgánōn'', Pokorny ''baskeutaí'', Attic ''phaskídes'', Attic ''pháskōlos'' 'leather sack', PIE *') *
bix
'

sphinx A sphinx ( ; , ; or sphinges ) is a mythical creature with the head of a human, the body of a lion, and the wings of an eagle. In Culture of Greece, Greek tradition, the sphinx is a treacherous and merciless being with the head of a woman, th ...

(

n phix), (Atti
sphinx
*
dalancha
' sea (Attic thalatta) ( Ionic thalassa) * ''dedalai'' package, bundle (Attic dethla, desmai) * ''eskorodos'' tenon (Attic tormos
skorthos
' tornos slice, lathe) * ''Eudalagines'' Graces Χάριτες (Attic Euthalgines) *
kanadoi
' 'jaws' nom. pl. (Attic ''gnathoi'', PIE *, 'jaw') (

''kanadoka'' notch (V) of an arrow ) *
laiba
' shield ( Doric ''laia'', ''laipha'') (Attic aspis) *
lalabis
' storm (Attic lailaps) *
homodalion
' isoetes plant (
θάλλω thallô
' bloom) *
rhoubotos
' potion (Attic rhophema) ''rhopheo'' suck, absorb
rhoibdeô
' suck with noise.

Macedonian in Classical sources

Among the references that have been discussed as possibly bearing some witness to the linguistic situation in Macedonia, there is a sentence from a fragmentary dialogue, apparently between an Athenian and a Macedonian, in an extant fragment of the 5th century BC comedy 'Macedonians' by the Athenian poet Strattis (fr. 28), where a stranger is portrayed as speaking in a rural Greek dialect. His language contains expressions such as for "you Athenians", being also attested in

Sappho Sappho (; ''Sapphṓ'' ; Aeolic Greek ''Psápphō''; ) was an Ancient Greek poet from Eresos or Mytilene on the island of Lesbos. Sappho is known for her lyric poetry, written to be sung while accompanied by music. In ancient times, Sapph ...

(

Lesbian A lesbian is a homosexual woman or girl. The word is also used for women in relation to their sexual identity or sexual behavior, regardless of sexual orientation, or as an adjective to characterize or associate nouns with female homosexu ...

) and

Theocritus Theocritus (; , ''Theokritos''; ; born 300 BC, died after 260 BC) was a Greek poet from Sicily, Magna Graecia, and the creator of Ancient Greek pastoral poetry. Life Little is known of Theocritus beyond what can be inferred from his writings ...

( Doric), while appears only in "funny country bumpkin" contexts of Attic comedy. Another text that has been quoted as evidence is a passage from

Livy Titus Livius (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( ), was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding i ...

(lived 59 BC-14 AD) in his ''

Ab urbe condita ''Ab urbe condita'' (; 'from the founding of Rome, founding of the City'), or (; 'in the year since the city's founding'), abbreviated as AUC or AVC, expresses a date in years since 753 BC, 753 BC, the traditional founding of Rome. It is ...

'' (31.29). Describing political negotiations between Macedonians and

Aetolia Aetolia () is a mountainous region of Greece on the north coast of the Gulf of Corinth, forming the eastern part of the modern regional unit of Aetolia-Acarnania. Geography The Achelous River separates Aetolia from Acarnania to the west; on ...

ns in the late 3rd century BC, Livy has a Macedonian ambassador argue that Aetolians,

Acarnania Acarnania () is a region of west-central Greece that lies along the Ionian Sea, west of Aetolia, with the Achelous River for a boundary, and north of the gulf of Calydon, which is the entrance to the Gulf of Corinth. Today it forms the western part ...

ns and Macedonians were "men of the same language". This has been interpreted as referring to a shared North-West Greek speech (as opposed to Attic Koiné). In another passage, Livy states that an announcement was translated from Latin to Greek for Macedonians to understand.

Quintus Curtius Rufus Quintus Curtius Rufus (; ) was a Ancient Rome, Roman historian, probably of the 1st century, author of his only known and only surviving work, ''Historiae Alexandri Magni'', "Histories of Alexander the Great", or more fully ''Historiarum Alex ...

, Philotas's trial and the statement that the Greek-speaking Branchidae had common language with the Macedonians. Over time, "Macedonian" (μακεδονικός), when referring to language (and related expressions such as ''μακεδονίζειν''; to speak in the Macedonian fashion) acquired the meaning of

Contributions to the Koine

As a consequence of the Macedonians' role in the formation of the Koine, Macedonian contributed considerable elements, unsurprisingly including some military terminology (διμοιρίτης, ταξίαρχος, ὑπασπισταί, etc.). Among the many contributions were the general use of the first declension grammar for male and female nouns with an -as ending, attested in the genitive of Macedonian coinage from the early 4th century BC of Amyntas III (ΑΜΥΝΤΑ in the genitive; the Attic form that fell into disuse would be ΑΜΥΝΤΟΥ). There were changes in verb conjugation such as in the Imperative δέξα attested in Macedonian sling stones found in Asiatic battlefields, that became adopted in place of the Attic forms. Koine Greek established a spirantisation of beta, gamma and delta, which has been attributed to the Macedonian influence.George Babiniotis (1992) The question of mediae in ancient Macedonian Greek reconsidered. In: Historical Philology: Greek, Latin, and Romance, Bela Brogyanyi, Reiner Lipp, 1992 John Benjamins Publishing)

Notes

# The Oxford English Dictionary (1989), ''Macedonian'', Simpson J. A. & Weiner E. S. C. (eds), Oxford: Oxford University Press, Vol. IX, (set) (vol. IX) p. 153 # Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged (1976), ''Macedonian'', USA:

Merriam-Webster Merriam-Webster, Incorporated is an list of companies of the United States by state, American company that publishes reference work, reference books and is mostly known for Webster's Dictionary, its dictionaries. It is the oldest dictionary pub ...

, G. & C. Merriam Co., vol. II (H–R)

References

External links

Ancient Macedonian as a Greek dialect: A critical survey on recent work (Greek, English, French, German text)
* ttps://www.livius.org/articles/place/amphipolis-ennea-hodoi/ Jona Lendering, ''Amphipolis (Ennea Hodoi)'' web page on livius.orgbr>Greek Inscriptions from ancient Macedonia (Epigraphical Database)
{{Authority control Hellenic languages Macedonian language (ancient)l

Language Language is a structured system of communication that consists of grammar and vocabulary. It is the primary means by which humans convey meaning, both in spoken and signed language, signed forms, and may also be conveyed through writing syste ...

Macedonian Varieties of Ancient Greek Languages attested from the 1st millennium BC Languages extinct in the 4th century BC Doric Greek