
Ancient Iberian coinage began in the fifth century BC, and widespread minting and circulation in the
Iberian peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula ( ), also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in south-western Europe. Mostly separated from the rest of the European landmass by the Pyrenees, it includes the territories of peninsular Spain and Continental Portugal, comprisin ...
began late in the third century, during the
Second Punic War
The Second Punic War (218 to 201 BC) was the second of Punic Wars, three wars fought between Ancient Carthage, Carthage and Roman Republic, Rome, the two main powers of the western Mediterranean Basin, Mediterranean in the 3rd century BC. For ...
. Civic coinages - emissions made by individual cities at their own volition - continued under the first two and a half centuries of Roman control until ending in the mid-first century AD. Some non-civic coins were minted on behalf of Roman emperors during this period and continued to be minted after the cessation of the civic coinages. After the cessation of the civic coinages, these Imperial coins were the only coins minted in Iberia until the coins of the
Suebi
file:1st century Germani.png, 300px, The approximate positions of some Germanic peoples reported by Graeco-Roman authors in the 1st century. Suebian peoples in red, and other Irminones in purple.
The Suebi (also spelled Suavi, Suevi or Suebians ...
and
Visigoths
The Visigoths (; ) were a Germanic people united under the rule of a king and living within the Roman Empire during late antiquity. The Visigoths first appeared in the Balkans, as a Roman-allied Barbarian kingdoms, barbarian military group unite ...
.
Ancient Iberia was connected to the eastern and central Mediterranean, and so there are links to the
Greek
Greek may refer to:
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...
,
Roman
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
*Rome, the capital city of Italy
*Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
*Roman people, the people of Roman civilization
*Epistle to the Romans, shortened to Romans, a letter w ...
and
Punic
The Punic people, usually known as the Carthaginians (and sometimes as Western Phoenicians), were a Semitic people who migrated from Phoenicia to the Western Mediterranean during the Early Iron Age. In modern scholarship, the term ''Punic'' ...
(
Carthaginian) civic coinages. There are also many differences that reflect dynamics within Iberia itself.
The colonial background: 6th century BC to the Second Punic War (-218 BC)
Small numbers of coins minted in other parts of the Mediterranean had circulated along the eastern coast of Spain perhaps from the sixth century, with an uptick from the fourth century. These coins were part of a colonial frontier economy in which indigenous towns traded wines, ceramics and finished goods primarily for raw materials: precious metals, wood, food products and perhaps slaves. Some coins may also have been earned by Iberian mercenaries fighting overseas.
Throughout the western Mediterranean, new coinage traditions appear around the 4th century.
Non-Greek cities in the Italian Peninsula (including Rome) begin minting in the 4th and early 3rd century.
Carthage
Carthage was an ancient city in Northern Africa, on the eastern side of the Lake of Tunis in what is now Tunisia. Carthage was one of the most important trading hubs of the Ancient Mediterranean and one of the most affluent cities of the classic ...
minted from the mid-4th century, as with the
Greek tradition following earlier emissions from Phoenician colonies in Sicily. In the north of the Iberian peninsula, the
Massiliote Greek colonies of
Emporion and
Rhode minted mainly silver coins from the mid-fifth and late fourth centuries, respectively. Further to the south, the Phoenician colonies of
Ebusus and
Gadir minted bronze coins from the second half of the fourth and early third centuries, respectively. Additionally, the prominent Iberian town of
Arse (Roman Saguntum) minted bronze and silver coins from the middle of the fourth century.
Within Iberian society, wealth could take a variety of forms, sometimes regionally specific. The discovery of mixed hoards containing coins, jewellery and precious metal bullion suggests that coins were being used as part of a range of ways to store, display and exchange wealth. For example, a late fifth century hoard found in a wall in the Iberian town of Puig de la Nau contained four gold earrings, a gold stud, a silver bracelet and a silver coin from Emporion. In many such hoards, some of the silver has been cut into small pieces, which can be related to finds of weights and scales and suggests that this metal circulated as a form of 'proto-money'.
Second Punic War (218-205 BC in Iberia)
Part of the
Second Punic War
The Second Punic War (218 to 201 BC) was the second of Punic Wars, three wars fought between Ancient Carthage, Carthage and Roman Republic, Rome, the two main powers of the western Mediterranean Basin, Mediterranean in the 3rd century BC. For ...
was fought in the Iberian Peninsula and coins were used by combatants on all sides.
This led to a widespread and dramatic increase in the number of places where coins were minted and the amount of coin in circulation.
To fund their war effort, the Carthaginians minted gold,
electrum
Electrum is a naturally occurring alloy of gold and silver, with trace amounts of copper and other metals. Its color ranges from pale to bright yellow, depending on the proportions of gold and silver. It has been produced artificially and is ...
, silver and bronze coins.
These coins may have been minted in the Barcid 'capital' of
Carthago Nova
Cartago Nova was the name of the city of Cartagena from the Roman conquest until the Byzantine domination in the 6th century, when its name changed to Carthago Spartaria.
History
Origin
Cartago Nova was founded around 227 BC by ...
or perhaps were minted simply in Carthaginian military camps.
In addition to these coins and those of
Gadir and
Ebusus, Phoenician colonies along the south coast such as
Malaka and
Sexi also minted bronze coins.
Along the east coast and particularly in the northeast a great number of towns minted silver drachmas.
Some of these coins imitate the drachmas of Emporion or Massalia, while others have
Iberian legends, a few of which can be related to towns or peoples but many of which are unknown or illegible.
This silver coinage is generally seen as minted by the pro-Roman side, particularly as little Roman coin seems to have reached the Peninsula given the concurrent fighting in the Italian Peninsula.
But given the fluid situation of the war, particularly in the early years, some of these emissions may have been minted to aid the Carthaginian cause.
Republican coinage (190s-72 BC)
After this war, and the subsequent Roman annexation of much of the Peninsula, many indigenous towns and a few Roman colonial towns minted civic coins over the second and early first centuries.
The main catalogue for these coins is the ''Corpus nummum hispaniae ante Augusti aetatem'' (CNH) but see also the more recent ''Diccionario de cecas y pueblos hispánicos''.
The indigenous towns in
Hispania Citerior
Hispania Citerior (English: "Hither Iberia", or "Nearer Iberia") was a Roman province in Hispania during the Roman Republic. It was on the eastern coast of Iberia down to the town of Cartago Nova, today's Cartagena in the autonomous community of ...
minted coins with
Iberian scripts
The Iberian scripts are the Paleohispanic scripts that were used to represent the extinct Iberian language. Most of them are typologically unusual in that they are semi-syllabic rather than purely alphabetic.Ferrer, J., Moncunill, N., ...
and either Iberian or
Celtiberian legends.
These coins were often typologically similar, with a heroic male portrait on the obverse and a horseman on the reverse - the so-called "jinete" (horseman) coins.
The areas in which coins were minted and circulating expanded as Roman control was spread into the interior of the Peninsula.
The legends and iconography on coins from
Hispania Ulterior
Hispania Ulterior (English: "Further Hispania", or occasionally "Thither Hispania") was a Roman province located in Hispania (on the Iberian Peninsula) during the Roman Republic, roughly located in Baetica and in the Guadalquivir valley of moder ...
were more diverse, with Latin legends common but also some Iberian scripts while Punic continued to be used in the old Phoenician colonies along the south coast.
Hence although coins from this era are often called
Iberian coins, this description does not cover all coins minted during the Republic.
Indeed, a smaller number of Roman colonial towns minted in Latin, following Italian and Roman examples more closely. These include
Valentia and
Toletum
Toledo ( ; ) is a city and municipality of Spain, the capital of the province of Toledo and the ''de jure'' seat of the government and parliament of the autonomous community of Castilla–La Mancha.
Toledo is primarily located on the right (nor ...
.
The numbers of towns minting peaked in the last third of the second century and early first century, and then declined rapidly in the early first century, particularly in Hispania Citerior after the end of the
Sertorian War.
The purpose of these coins is unclear.
They may be related to ad hoc Roman tribute demands or rents on land confiscated by Rome.
But the amounts minted are insufficient to represent regular taxation or legionary pay.
Widely varying levels of production suggest that the reasons each town minted were diverse.
Some coins seem tightly related to particular extractive or productive actitivites, such as mining camps in the south or fish-salting industries along the south coast.
As the decision to mint was taken by local communities, and many elements of the legends and iconography seem locally significant, there may have been a strong element of local pride and identity at stake.
Once in circulation, Iberian coins predominantly stayed within the region where they were minted although some did travel further afield.
The production of many bronze coins and even many fractions as well as high numbers of coins found throughout all different types of site, from large towns to small farms, suggest a wide range of everyday uses.
Late Republican and Julio-Claudian coinage (72 BC-41 AD)
From around the mid-first century BC, the number of towns emitting coins decreased and Latin legends were standardised throughout the Peninsula.
Coins were mainly now emitted by more important towns that had received privileged juridical status from victorious Roman generals in the Civil Wars and then from the new
Julio-Claudian
The Julio-Claudian dynasty comprised the first five Roman emperors: Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero.
This line of emperors ruled the Roman Empire, from its formation (under Augustus, in 27 BC) until the last of the line, Emper ...
emperors
Augustus
Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian (), was the founder of the Roman Empire, who reigned as the first Roman emperor from 27 BC until his death in A ...
and
Tiberius
Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus ( ; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37) was Roman emperor from AD 14 until 37. He succeeded his stepfather Augustus, the first Roman emperor. Tiberius was born in Rome in 42 BC to Roman politician Tiberius Cl ...
.
Many of the coins emitted proclaim the new status of emitting towns as Roman
coloniae or
municipia
In ancient Rome, the Latin term (: ) referred to a town or city. Etymologically, the was a social contract among ('duty holders'), or citizens of the town. The duties () were a communal obligation assumed by the in exchange for the privileges ...
, and individual civic iconography was used with strong similarities to that used in other Roman provinces and media.
These emissions are conventionally called
(Roman) Provincial coins.
The main catalogue for these coins is Volume I of the ''Roman Provincial Coinage'' (RPC).
A handful of mints in eastern Iberia did attempt to retain the jinete coins with bilingual Iberian and Latin legends, but this did not become popular.
The peak of these provincial emissions was under Augustus and Tiberius, and the last 'local' coins were emitted under the emperor
Caligula
Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (31 August 12 – 24 January 41), also called Gaius and Caligula (), was Roman emperor from AD 37 until his assassination in 41. He was the son of the Roman general Germanicus and Augustus' granddaughter Ag ...
, in the mid-first century AD.
This cessation of local coinage in the mid-first century AD was not unique to Hispania but occurred throughout the western Provinces.
From that point on the only emissions in Roman Hispania were emissions from a few Imperial mints controlled by the emperor and used for purposes such as legionary pay.
Two main reasons are given for the provincial emissions.
Firstly, the new
municipia
In ancient Rome, the Latin term (: ) referred to a town or city. Etymologically, the was a social contract among ('duty holders'), or citizens of the town. The duties () were a communal obligation assumed by the in exchange for the privileges ...
and
coloniae wanted to advertise their status and Imperial favour.
Secondly, these new constitutional forms came with state expenses.
These emissions may have been intended to partly meet such expenses.
Once these coins were in circulation, they were likely used in the broad range of roles coins played in Roman monetised economic life.
Gallery
See also
*
Roman Republican currency
*
Roman currency
Roman currency for most of Roman history consisted of gold, silver, bronze, orichalcum#Numismatics, orichalcum and copper coinage. From its introduction during the Roman Republic, Republic, in the third century BC, through Roman Empire, Imperial ...
*
Roman provincial coins
*
Iberians
The Iberians (, from , ''Iberes'') were an ancient people settled in the eastern and southern coasts of the Iberian Peninsula, at least from the 6th century BC. They are described in Greek and Roman sources (among others, by Hecataeus of Mil ...
*
Carthaginian currency
Carthaginian or Punic coins were produced from the late fifth century BC through 146 BC by ancient Carthage, a Phoenician city-state located near present-day Tunis, Tunisia. A wide range of coinage was issued in gold, electrum, silver, billon, and ...
*
Ancient Greek coinage
The history of ancient Greek coinage can be divided (along with most other Greek art forms) into four periods: the Archaic, the Classical, the Hellenistic and the Roman. The Archaic period extends from the introduction of coinage to the Greek ...
Citations
References
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*{{Citation, last1=Villaronga, first1=L., year=1994, title=Corpus nummum hispaniae ante Augusti aetatem, publisher=José A. Herrero
External links
Catalogue of the Ancient Coins of the Iberian PeninsulaAncient Iberian coinage, by P P Ripolles
Currencies of ancient Europe