Alhamiado

'' Castillian translations in Aljamiado script above each line of Arabic Quranic text.">Old_Spanish.html" ;"title="Al-Fatiha'' with Old Spanish">Castillian translations in Aljamiado script above each line of Arabic Quranic text.
file:Aljamiado.png">Aljamiado text by Mancebo de Arévalo. c. 16th century.
''Poema de Yuçuf''

''Aljamiado'' (; ; trans. ''ʿajamiyah'' ) or ''Aljamía'' texts are manuscripts that use the Arabic script for transcribing European languages, especially Romance languages such as Old Spanish or Aragonese. This alphabet is also called the Morisco alphabet.

According to Anwar G. Chejne, ''Aljamiado'' or ''Aljamía'' is "a corruption of the Arabic word ''ʿajamiyah'' (in this case it means foreign language) and, generally, the Arabic expression ''ʿajam'' and its derivative ''ʿajamiyah'' are applicable to peoples whose ancestry is not of Arabian origin". During the Arab conquest of Persia, the term became a pejorative.

History

The systematic writing of Romance-language texts in Arabic scripts appears to have begun in the fifteenth century, and the overwhelming majority of such texts that can be dated belong to the sixteenth century. A key ''aljamiado'' text is the compilation ''Suma de los principales mandamientos y devediamentos de nuestra santa ley y sunna'' by the mufti of Segovia, of 1462.

In later times, Moriscos were banned from using Arabic as a religious language, and wrote in Spanish on Islamic subjects. Examples are the ''Coplas del alhichante de Puey Monzón'', narrating a ''Hajj'', or the '' Poema de Yuçuf'' on the Biblical Joseph (written in Aragonese).

Aljamiado played a very important role in preserving Islam and the Arabic language in the life of the Moriscos of Castile and Aragon; Valencian and Granadan Moriscos spoke and wrote in Andalusi Arabic. After the fall of the last Muslim kingdom on the Iberian peninsula, the Moriscos (Muslims in parts of what was once Al-Andalus) were forced to convert to Christianity or leave the peninsula. They were forced to adopt Christian customs and traditions and to attend church services on Sundays. Nevertheless, some of the Moriscos kept their Islamic belief and traditions secretly, and this included the usage of Aljamiado.

In 1567, Philip II of Spain issued a royal decree in Spain, which forced Moriscos to abandon using Arabic on all occasions, formal and informal, speaking and writing. Using Arabic in any sense of the word would be regarded as a crime. They were given three years to learn the language of the Christian Spanish, after which they would have to get rid of all Arabic written material. Moriscos of Castile and Aragon translated all prayers and the Hadith (sayings of the Prophet Muhammad) into Aljamiado transcriptions of the Spanish language, while keeping all Qur'anic verses in the original Arabic. Aljamiado scrolls were circulated amongst the Moriscos. Historians came to know about Aljamiado literature only in the early nineteenth century. Some of the Aljamiado scrolls are kept in the Spanish National Library in Madrid.

Historic Alphabet

Letters

Notes:
# The letter ''alif'' (ا) plays three roles. First as a carrier of vowel at the beginning of a word. Second is for writing the sound in combination with diacritic, and third is for writing vowel hiatus.
# It is not an independent letter, but a special "dongara" consisting of a letter and a consonant (in other words, the repetition of a letter) to indicate a specific sound.
# These letters are only used in writing Arabic loanwords. The Ladino equivalents for these letters are in accordance with the Judeo-Arabic orthographic traditions.
# This letter has a dual pronunciation, depending on the letter after it. For this reason, both in Aljamiado and in Ladino, two different letters are used to represent it.
# In Ladino, the pronunciation of this letter differs from its equivalent in modern Spanish.
# Whenever the letter "D" is at the beginning of the word, or after a nasal consonant ("m" or "n"), or after a lateral consonant ("l"), pronounced as and written with the letter "d". In all other cases, it is pronounced as �and written with the letter "d".
# In old Spanish, the letter "X" was for representing the sound � But in some words, especially those that start with "ex-", the pronunciation of this letter is sor z
# In the writing of Aljamiado, the Maghrebi script has been common, in which the placement and number of dot of on letters "faʾ" and "qafʾ" are different from the conventional Arabic script, or the so-called "Mashreqi script".
# The letter "waw" does not correspond to any exact letter in the Spanish Latin alphabet. This letter and its sound are pronounced in certain digraphs and trigraphs. Worded differently, there are diphthongs and triphthongs as result of certain vowel sequences, where the sound is pronounced and the letter "waw" is used to write it.
# The letter "y" in the Spanish Latin alphabet is equivalent to "yaʾ" (ي). But this letter is also used to write some consonant sequences, especially consonant sequences that have a sound similar to in their pronunciation.

Vowels

Spanish has 5 vowels, which include

In the Arabic language and alphabet, however, there are only 3 vowels, In Arabic, these 3 vowels have both a short form, which is represented by diacritics ''fatʾha'', ''kasra'', and ''ḍamma'', and long forms, which are represented by the letters ''alif'' (ا), ''yaʾ'' (ي), and ''waw'' (و).

In Spanish, however, there is no difference between short and long vowels. In Aljamiado alphabet, 4 vowels are written as follows:Galmés de Fuentes, A. (2004). Estudios sobre la literatura española Aljamiado-morisca. Fundación Ramón Menéndez Pidal.

The vowel is represented by the diacritic "◌َ".
The vowel is represented by the diacritic "◌ِ".
The two vowels and are merged and are represented by the diacritic "◌ُ".
The vowel is represented by the combination of fatʾha and ''alif'' "ـَـا".

The Hebrew alphabet, like Arabic, has both diacritics, known as niqqud, and the use of three letters ''alef'' (א), ''vav'' (ו), and ''yod'' (י). In the Judaeo-Spanish alphabet, niqqud is not used, and only three aforementioned letters are used. Also, in addition to the merger of and two vowels and are also merged, and thus only three vowels are shown; as follows:Bunis, D. M. (2017). Chapter 12, Judezmo (Ladino). In L. Kahn & A. D. Rubin (Eds.), Handbook of Jewish languages (pp. 366–451). essay, Brill.

The vowel is represented by ''alif'' "א".
The two vowels and are merged and represented by ''yod'' "י".
The two vowels and are merged and are represented by ''vav'' "ו".

In Aljamiado, similar to Arabic and Persian, when the vowel is at the beginning of the word, ''alif'' (ا) is used as the vowel carrier, except for the sound. For the sound, a hamza is used as a vowel carrier, followed by ''alif'' (ا). In Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) as in Arabic, ''alif'' "א" plays the same role.

No distinction between unstressed or stressed vowels exist in Aljamiado manuscripts.

In the middle of the word, in Aljamiado, only diacritics (and for the case of only a diacritic and an ''alif'' (ا) and in Judaeo-Spanish only one of the three previously mentioned letters are used.

Notes:
# The letter ''hei'' (ה) is used when the vowel is at the end of the word. This letter is the equivalent to the letter «ه، ـه» or «ة، ـة» in Persian and Arabic.

Vowel Sequences

In Spanish, vowels sequences fall into two general types, diphthongs and Vowel hiatus. "diphthong" means that in practice, a pair of sequential vowels are read as a single vowel under one syllable. "Vowel hiatus" means that two vowels are read as two consecutive separate syllables.

The pronunciation of vowels and their writing are subject to certain rules in the Spanish Latin Alphabet, as well as in Aljamiado. In Spanish, vowels are divided into two general groups: "strong" and "weak":

* Vowels are classified as strong;
* Vowels are classified as weak.

As previously mentioned, in Aljamiado, there is no difference in writing between and In Judaeo-Spanish, there's no difference between and nor between and

"Vowel hiatus" occurs when two strong vowels are sequential. In such a case, each vowel is read as part of a separate syllable. "Diphthong" occurs when one vowel is weak and the other is strong. In this case, Stress in pronunciation is on the strong vowel. Of course, there are exceptions to these rules.

Below table outlines the general guidelines and some examples

Consonants

In order to better understand Aljamiado writing conventions, it is necessary to understand the pronunciation of Old Spanish and the evolution of the sounds of Spanish. That is why the manuscripts of Aljamiado are considered important sources for the study of Spanish linguistics.

The first thing that should be mentioned is that in Aljamiado, like Persian and other Arabic-derived alphabets, changes were made to the letters in the Arabic alphabet in order to show new consonants. In other Arabic-derived alphabets, these changes were made by adding dots to the letters that most closely match an existing sound in Arabic alphabet. But in Aljamiado, this was done by gemination mark on the letters with the closest existing sound. Gemination, in addition to this role, in Aljamiado also plays the role of geminating, like Arabic, something that is done in the Spanish Latin alphabet by writing letters twice. For example, "ب" produces a but "بّ" produces a

The Ladino alphabet also does the same thing with niqqud such as "Rafe" (רָפֶה) "◌ﬞ" or "Geresh" (גֶּרֶשׁ) "◌׳", for example "ב" produces the sound and "בﬞ" or "ב׳" produce the sound

Notes
# This sound, for the most part, has evolved out of existence in Modern Spanish. The "x" (شّ) now sounds like "j" ( in most cases in modern Spanish.

Some letters simply adopted another value.

The phoneme /β/ was typically represented by the letter ب (b), though in some instances it was represented by the letter ف (f). The plosive consonants were required to be aspirated; however, this aspect was lost in weaker positions such as the initial position of a word or an intervocalic position. In Aljamiado texts, the letter ط was utilized to represent the phoneme /t/ in initial and intervocalic positions where it was unaspirated, while the letter ت was utilized in postconsonantal positions to indicate the aspirated form of the phoneme. Similarly, the letter ﻕ was used to represent the phoneme /k/ in initial and intervocalic positions where it was unaspirated, and the letter ﻙ was used in postconsonantal positions to indicate the aspirated form. However, according to the glossary of Abuljair, the aspiration of plosive consonants never ceased to occur in any position.

B, V (ب) and P (بّ)

In Spanish language, the letter "B" has two allophones. If the letter is at the beginning of the word, or after a nasal consonant ("m" or "n"), it is pronounced as Otherwise, it is pronounced as ~β The letter "v" also is pronounced as ~βregardless of position in the word.

In Aljamiado, no distinction is made between any one of these. The letter "baʾ" (ب) is used for all cases.

In Judeo-Spanish, distinction is made between these two allophones. Cases of are written with the letter "beth" "ב". Whereas the sounds ~βare written with the letter "beth" with Rafe or Geresh "בﬞ (ב׳)".US Government Guide on Romanization of Ladin
https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/ladino.pdf
/ref> US Government Guide on Romanization of Ladino

As Arabic alphabet lacks a letter for the equivalent to the letter "P", the sound in Aljamiado, a digraph has been created. This digraph consists of the letter "baʾ" and a shadda, "بّ".

This is not an issue in Judeo-Spanish, as the letter " Pe" has two possible pronunciations of and Thus for the sound the letter "pe" (פ) is used. For the sound the letter "pe" plus Rafe or Geresh (פﬞ (פ׳) / ף) is used.

G, J (ج and خ) and Ch (جّ)

In Spanish, the letter "G" represents two pronunciations. If "G" is followed by "e", "i", or "y", it will have a "soft" pronunciation Otherwise, it will have a hard pronunciation

In Spanish, the letter "J" has pronunciation identical with "soft G". In old Spanish, these two were pronounced as �‍~d͡ʒ Thus, the Aljamiado letter for both these sounds is reflective of this historic sound. The letter "jim" (ج) is used, as opposed to "khaʾ" (خ).

Similarly in Judeo-Spanish, the letter "gimel" plus Rafe or Geresh (גﬞ (ג׳)) has historically been used. In Modern Judeo-Spanish (Ladino), unlike varieties of Spanish, this historic pronunciation has been preserved. However, due to contact and influence from other languages, namely Serbo-Croatian, Turkish, and French, a distinction between �‍and ͡ʒin orthography has come to dominance. Namely that the former ( �‍ are shown with "zayn" Rafe or Geresh (זﬞ (ז׳)).

D (د and ذ)

Similar to the letter "B", the letter "D" represents two allophones in Spanish. If the letter is at the beginning of the word, or after a nasal consonant ("m" or "n"), it is pronounced as Otherwise, it is pronounced as �

While this is not reflected in Latin alphabet, in Aljamiado manuscripts, as well as in Judeo-Spanish (not universally) is shown.

In instances where the pronunciation is the letter "dal" (د) has been used in Aljamiado, and the letter "dalet" (ד) Judeo-Spanish.

In instances where the pronunciation is � the letter "ḏal" (ذ) has been used in Aljamiado, and the letter "dalet" plus Rafe or Geresh (דﬞ (ד׳)) Judeo-Spanish.

R (ر) and Rr (رّ)

In Spanish Latin Alphabet, "r" versus "rr" denotes a difference in pronunciation, with the former being �( Voiced alveolar tap), and the latter (Voiced alveolar trill). This distinction is used in Aljamiado too with the use of shadda. The letter "r" being shown with "raʾ" (ر), and the "rr" with "raʾ-shadda" (رّ).

This distinction is not shown in Judeo-Spanish. Both cases are shown with a single "resh" (ר). In some regional varieties of Ladino, the distinction in pronunciation had ceased to exist as well.

Z (ز), Ç/S (س), and X (ش)

One of the notable evolutions in the Spanish language has been with respect to fricative-coronal consonants.

In old Spanish, the letter "z" was pronounced as ͡z It is thus written in Aljamiado with the letter "zaʾ" (ز). In Judeo-Spanish, the letter "zayin" (ז) is used. However, in modern Spanish, the pronunciation of the letter "z" has evolved in two manners. In most dialects of European Spanish, the letter "z" today is pronounced identically as the soft pronunciation of the letter "c", as � In Latin American dialects, the letter "z" is pronounced identically as the letter "s" and the soft pronunciation of the letter "c", as

The letter "c" has two pronunciations in Spanish, based on rules and factors, hard and soft C. "c" is pronounced "soft" if it is followed by "e", "i", or "y", or if it is given a cedilla accent (ç). In other cases, "c" is pronounced as "hard", as a

In old Spanish, the soft pronunciation of "c" was as ͡s In Aljamiado, this letter was uniquely assigned the letter "sin" (س). In Judeo-Spanish, the letter "samech" (ס) was used.

However, in modern Spanish, the soft pronunciation of the letter "c" has evolved in two manners. In most dialects of European Spanish, the letter "c" today is pronounced identically as the letter "z", as � In Latin American dialects, the soft pronunciation of the letter "c" is pronounced identically as the letter "s" and "z", as

In old Spanish, the letter "s" was pronounced as or distinct from the soft pronunciation of the letter "c". The digraph "ss" represented as well, but has since been replaced with a single "s" in Spanish orthography. To reflect the difference between "s" and soft pronunciation of "c", in Aljamiado, the letter "shin" (ش) was given a new association and sound, and was used to write "s". Similarly, in Judeo-Spanish, letter "shin" (ש) was used.

In modern Judeo-Spanish, in the centuries after expulsion of Jews from Spain, as the pronunciations of "c" and "s" merged independently of Spanish, confusion ensued for a few decades, with both "samech" (ס) and "shin" (ש) being used interchangeably. Today, the letter "samech" (ס) has won out and is used exclusively.

In old Spanish, the letter "x" had a pronunciation as � In Aljamiado, the letter "shin" (ش) was used. In Judeo-Spanish, the letter "shin" has been used, historically with niqqud Rafe or Geresh (שﬞ (ש׳)). But in modern times, without any (ש).

In modern Spanish, the pronunciation of "x" has evolved. In most cases, it is now pronounced as the letter "j" would, This is reflected in orthography as well. In Judeo-Spanish, the original pronunciation has been retained.

In some instances, especially in beginning of words as "ex-", the letter "x" has preserved an sound, or a ssound. In Judeo-Spanish this is reflected mostly by "gimel+zayin" (גז) and in some other words as "koph+samech" (קס).

Modern Phonetic Aljamiado

In the modern era, with an increased interest in the history and culture of the Muslim-ruled era of Spanish history, linguists and language-enthutiasts have attempted to study more deeply the history of Aljamiado. Some, such as ''Fernando Tejón'', have compiled, updated, and standardized a new iteration of the Aljamiado script, having it match the modern phonetics of Peninsular Spanish, which in a sense makes this effort, more of creating an Aljamiado-derived transliteration scheme, than an alphabet. The stated objective of this transliteration scheme is to have an accurate one-to-one representation of all phonetic sounds that are found in standard Peninsular Spanish, eliminating detailed representation of allophones (in contrast with traditional Aljamiado, in which for example the letter "d" was written with either د or ذ, sounds /d/ and /ð/ respectively). This section presents this modern alphabet.

This specific scheme has been designed based on the principle of ease-of-use and practicality, meaning that the letters and diacritics used, are the typical ones found in standard Arabic script, with no need for additional characters or modifications. This is in line with the traditional Aljamiado itself, in which for example the letter "p" is written with a geminated "b", as in «بّ» ("b" with a shadda diacritic). This principle applies to vowels as well, where the sukun (no-vowel) diacritic (◌ْ) has been designated for the sound of "o", while actual cases of "no-vowel" are deliberately left without any diacritic, and where the nasan "an" diacritic (◌ً) has been designated for vowel "e"

Below table presents the letters and diacritics:

Besides this, there have been also some timid attempts to develop a Catalan and Valencian Aljamiado literature by some modern-day Iberian Muslims, based on the Medieval and Early Modern Aragonese and Castilian models.

Other uses

The practice of Jews writing Romance languages such as Spanish, Aragonese or Catalan in the Hebrew script is also referred to as ''aljamiado''.

The word ''aljamiado'' is sometimes used for other non-Semitic language written in Arabic letters:

* Bosnian and Albanian texts written in Arabic script during the Ottoman period have been referred to as aljamiado. However, many linguists prefer to limit the term to Romance languages, instead using ''Arebica'' to refer to the use of Arabic script for Slavic languages like Bosnian.
* The word ''Aljamiado'' is also used to refer to Greek written in the Arabic/Ottoman alphabet.

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Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:

See also

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References

Further reading

* ''Los Siete Alhaicales y otras plegarias de mudéjares y moriscos'' by Xavier Casassas Canals published by Almuzara, Sevilla (Spain), 2007.

External links

A bilingual Arabic-''aljamiado'' Qur'an from the fifteenth century

{{Authority control

16th-century Spanish literature
Arabic alphabets
History of the Spanish language
Aragonese language
Moriscos