The Alawite State (, '; ), initially named the Territory of the Alawites ()—after the locally-dominant

Alawites Alawites () are an Arab ethnoreligious group who live primarily in the Levant region in West Asia and follow Alawism, a sect of Islam that splintered from early Shia as a ''ghulat'' branch during the ninth century. Alawites venerate Ali ...

—from its inception until its integration to the Syrian Federation in 1922, was a French mandate territory on the coast of present-day

Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...

after

World War I World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...

.Alawite Territory (Sanjak of Latakia 1920–1936)
Fro

/ref> The French Mandate from the

League of Nations The League of Nations (LN or LoN; , SdN) was the first worldwide intergovernmental organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. It was founded on 10 January 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920), Paris Peace ...

lasted from 1920 to 1946.Provence, Michael. ''The Great Syrian Revolt and the Rise of Arab Nationalism''. Austin:

University of Texas Press The University of Texas Press (or UT Press) is the university press of the University of Texas at Austin. Established in 1950, the Press publishes scholarly and trade books in several areas, including Latin American studies, Caribbean, Caribbea ...

, 2005. The use of "Alawite", instead of "Nusayri", was advocated by the French early in the Mandate period and referred to a member of the Alawite faith with the term literally referring to a "follower of Ali". In 1920, the French-named "Alawite Territory" was home to a large population of

.Khoury, Philip S. ''Syria and the French Mandate: The Politics of Arab Nationalism, 1920–1945''. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987.

Geography

The region is coastal and mountainous, home to a predominantly-rural, heterogeneous population. During the French Mandate period, the society was divided by religion and geography; the landowning families and 80 percent of the population of the port city of

Latakia Latakia (; ; Syrian Arabic, Syrian pronunciation: ) is the principal port city of Syria and capital city of the Latakia Governorate located on the Mediterranean coast. Historically, it has also been known as Laodicea in Syria or Laodicea ad Mar ...

were Sunni Muslim. More than 90 percent of the province's population was rural, and 82 percent were

. The Alawite State bordered

Greater Lebanon The State of Greater Lebanon (; ), informally known as French Lebanon, was a state declared on 1 September 1920, which became the Lebanese Republic (; ) in May 1926, and is the predecessor of modern Lebanon. The state was declared on 1 Septembe ...

on the south; the northern border was with the Sanjak of Alexandretta, where Alawites made up a large portion of the population. To the west was the

Eastern Mediterranean The Eastern Mediterranean is a loosely delimited region comprising the easternmost portion of the Mediterranean Sea, and well as the adjoining land—often defined as the countries around the Levantine Sea. It includes the southern half of Turkey ...

. The eastern border with Syria ran roughly along the

An-Nusayriyah Mountains The Coastal Mountain Range (, ''Silsilat al-Jibāl as-Sāḥilīyah'') also called Jabal al-Ansariya, Jabal an-Nusayria or Jabal al-`Alawīyin (Ansari, Nusayri or Alawi Mountains) is a mountain range in northwestern Syria running north–south, ...

and the

Orontes River The Orontes (; from Ancient Greek , ) or Nahr al-ʿĀṣī, or simply Asi (, ; ) is a long river in Western Asia that begins in Lebanon, flowing northwards through Syria before entering the Mediterranean Sea near Samandağ in Hatay Province, Turk ...

from north to south. The modern

and Tartus Governorates roughly encompass the Alawite State. Both have majority Alawite populations; parts of modern-day

Al-Suqaylabiyah Al-Suqaylabiyah () is a city in western Syria, administratively part of the Hama Governorate. It is located about from Hama and overlooks the Ghab Valley. According to the 2004 official census, the town had a population of 13,920.Masyaf, Talkalakh and Jisr ash-Shugur Districts also belonged to the state.

History

1918–1920

The defeat and collapse of the Ottoman Empire at the end of

, with the Armistice of Mudros signed on 30 October 1918, brought on a scramble for control of the disintegrating empire's provinces. As of 1918, France occupied Lebanon and Syria, which was under the leadership of the

Emir Emir (; ' (), also Romanization of Arabic, transliterated as amir, is a word of Arabic language, Arabic origin that can refer to a male monarch, aristocratic, aristocrat, holder of high-ranking military or political office, or other person po ...

Faisal I. By 1920, a growing anti-French sentiment in the region led to the establishment of the Arab Kingdom of Syria under King Faisal I on 7 March 1920.Longrigg, Stephen Hemsley. "Syria and Lebanon Under French Mandate." London: Oxford University Press, 1958. The Arab Kingdom of Syria was initially supported by the

British British may refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies. * British national identity, the characteristics of British people and culture ...

, despite French protests. The British withdrew support, and on 5 May 1920 the Allied Supreme Council published a Mandate for "Syria and the

Lebanon Lebanon, officially the Republic of Lebanon, is a country in the Levant region of West Asia. Situated at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian Peninsula, it is bordered by Syria to the north and east, Israel to the south ...

" to the

French Republic France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...

, with French and Arabic as the official languages. General Gouraud was appointed high commissioner of the Syrian territories and commander-in-chief of French forces. The population of Lebanon was pro-French; that of Syria was anti-French, with a pan-Arab nationalistic bent. The French insisted that the Mandate was not "inconsistent" with Syrian self-government;

Syrians Syrians () are the majority inhabitants of Syria, indigenous to the Levant, most of whom have Arabic, especially its Levantine Arabic, Levantine and Mesopotamian Arabic, Mesopotamian dialects, as a mother tongue. The culture of Syria, cultural ...

were forced to accept the mandate when King Faisal left the country (under pressure from France) in July 1920, after Great Britain withdrew support for his rule in the face of French claims.

1920–22

At the time, the French rejected native outcry for the unification of Syria. In early September 1920, the French divided the territories of their mandate based on heterogeneous population to grant local autonomy to demographic regions. Some argue that the French acted to intentionally divide the population, limiting the spread of "the urban contagion of nationalist agitation". On 2 September 1920 a "Territory of the Alawis" was created in the coastal and mountain country, comprising Alawi villages; the French justified this separation by citing the "backwardness" of the mountain-dwellers, religiously distinct from the surrounding Sunni population. The division intended to protect the Alawi people from more-powerful majorities. The Alawite State was run by a succession of French governors from 1920 to 1936: *Colonel Marie Joseph Émile Niéger (1874-1951), 2 September 1920 – 1921 *Gaston Henri Gustave Billotte (1875-1940), 1921 – 1922 *Léon Henri Charles Cayla (1881-1965), 1922 – 1925 *Ernest Marie Hubert Schoeffler (1877-1952), 1925 – 5 December 1936 After the relative independence of Faisal I's rule, French colonialism was unwelcome. The divisions were thought to serve the interests of a Christian minority over a Muslim majority, favouring colonial rule and stifling dissent. The Sunni landowners, primarily living in the province's cities, were supporters of Syrian unity; however, the French were supported by the rural Alawite communities to whom they catered. Salih al-Ali led the Syrian Revolt of 1919 in the Alawi region east of the coastal city of

. Al-Ali was primarily interested in protecting Alawite regions from external meddling. His rebellions were not motivated by nationalist movement; however, they identified with it to further Alawite autonomy. The rebels surrendered to French forces after two years of raiding French outposts in October 1921.

1923–24

In 1922, the French administration instituted an elected government made up of councils of representative of the states of

Aleppo Aleppo is a city in Syria, which serves as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Governorates of Syria, governorate of Syria. With an estimated population of 2,098,000 residents it is Syria's largest city by urban area, and ...

Damascus Damascus ( , ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in the Levant region by population, largest city of Syria. It is the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. Kno ...

and the Alawite territory. In June 1923 the French administration, headed by General

Maxime Weygand Maxime Weygand (; 21 January 1867 – 28 January 1965) was a French military commander in World War I and World War II, as well as a high ranking member of the Vichy France, Vichy regime. Born in Belgium, Weygand was raised in France and educate ...

, allowed individual states to elect their own representative councils. The primary election, a contest between French officials and the nationalists, was considered fraudulent by Syrians (many of whom boycotted the 26 October elections). The Alawite State, insulated from nationalist tendencies, elected 10 pro-French representatives to its 12-person council after a 77-percent voter turnout in the primary elections. Such numbers were not seen in the nationalist Damascus and

. The Alawi preferred to be grouped with the territories of Lebanon, in contrast to Sunnis and Christians populations demanding Syrian unity. The majority of French support in these first elections came from rural populations, whom the French had primarily benefited.Burke, Edmund, III. "A Comparative View of French Native Policy in Morocco and Syria, 1912–1925." Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 9, No. 2: 175–186. May 1973.

1925–27: Great Syrian Revolt

On 1 January 1925, the State of Syria was born from a French merger of the States of Damascus and Aleppo. Lebanon and the Alawi State were not included.Rabinovich, Itamar. "The Compact Minorities and the Syrian State, 1918–45." Journal of Contemporary History, Vol.14, No.4: 693–712. Oct 1979. Perhaps inspired by the

Turkish War of Independence , strength1 = May 1919: 35,000November 1920: 86,000Turkish General Staff, ''Türk İstiklal Harbinde Batı Cephesi'', Edition II, Part 2, Ankara 1999, p. 225August 1922: 271,000Celâl Erikan, Rıdvan Akın: ''Kurtuluş Savaşı tarih ...

(1919–1921), the

Great Syrian Revolt The Great Syrian Revolt (), also known as the Revolt of 1925, was a general uprising across the State of Syria (1925–1930), State of Syria and Greater Lebanon during the period of 1925 to 1927. The leading rebel forces initially comprised figh ...

began in the countryside of

Jabal al-Druze Jabal al-Druze (), is an elevated volcanic region in the Suwayda Governorate of southern Syria. Most of the inhabitants of this region are Druze, and there are also significant Christian communities. Safaitic inscriptions were first found in ...

. Led by Sultan al-Atrash as a

Druze The Druze ( ; , ' or ', , '), who Endonym and exonym, call themselves al-Muwaḥḥidūn (), are an Arabs, Arab Eastern esotericism, esoteric Religious denomination, religious group from West Asia who adhere to the Druze faith, an Abrahamic ...

uprising, the movement was adopted by a group of Syrian nationalists led by Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar and spread to the states of Aleppo and Damascus.Khoury, Philip S. "Factionalism among Syrian Nationalists during the French Mandate." International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 13, No. 4: pp. 441–469. Nov. 1981. Lasting from July 1925 to June 1927, it was an anti-French, anti-imperialist response to five years of French rule; to the Druze it was not a movement toward Syrian unity, but simply a protest against French rule. The rural Alawite territory was largely uninvolved in the Great Revolt. The French had favoured religious minorities such as the Druze and the Alawi, attempting to isolate them from mainstream nationalist culture. Many young men from rural Alawi communities joined the French troops, enlisting in the '' troupes speciales'' (part of the French forces in Syria at the time) for social advancement. These troops, regional forces recruited from minority populations, were often used to suppress civil disorders. Itamar Rabinovich proposed three reasons why the Alawi people were uninterested in the Great Revolt: In 1930 the Alawite State was renamed as the Government of Latakia, the only concession by the French to Arab nationalists until 1936.

Dissolution

On 3 December 1936 (becoming effective in 1937), the Alawite state was incorporated into Syrian Republic as a concession by the French to the Nationalist Bloc (the ruling party of the semi-autonomous Syrian government).Shambrook, Peter A. "French Imperialism in Syria, 1927–1936." Reading: Ithaca Press, 1998. There was a great deal of Alawite separatist sentiment in the region, but their political views could not be coordinated into a unified voice. This was attributed to the peasant status of most Alawites, "exploited by a predominantly Sunni landowning class resident in Latakia and

Hama Hama ( ', ) is a city on the banks of the Orontes River in west-central Syria. It is located north of Damascus and north of Homs. It is the provincial capital of the Hama Governorate. With a population of 996,000 (2023 census), Hama is one o ...

". There was also a great deal of factionalism amongst the Alawite tribes, and the Alawite State was incorporated into Syria with little organised resistance.

Aftermath

1936–1946

By 1939 the Nationalist Bloc party fell out of favour with the Syrian people because of its failure to increase the autonomy of the Syrian government from French influence. Prime Minister Jamil Mardam resigned at the end of 1938; the French filled the power vacuum, dissolving Parliament, suppressing Syrian nationalism and increasing the autonomy of the French-supporting Alawite and Druze territories (thwarting Syrian unification).

World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...

established a strong British presence in Syria. After the fall of the Third Republic in June 1940 and the French surrender to the

Axis powers The Axis powers, originally called the Rome–Berlin Axis and also Rome–Berlin–Tokyo Axis, was the military coalition which initiated World War II and fought against the Allies of World War II, Allies. Its principal members were Nazi Ge ...

Vichy France Vichy France (; 10 July 1940 – 9 August 1944), officially the French State ('), was a French rump state headed by Marshal Philippe Pétain during World War II, established as a result of the French capitulation after the Battle of France, ...

controlled Syria until Britain and

Free France Free France () was a resistance government claiming to be the legitimate government of France following the dissolution of the Third French Republic, Third Republic during World War II. Led by General , Free France was established as a gover ...

seized the country (and Lebanon) in July 1941. In 1942, the Latakia and Druze regions were returned to Syrian control. By the end of the war, Arab nationalists in Syria were ready to make another play for power.

1946–63

The French left Syria in 1946 and the new, independent government lasted for three years (until a 1949 military coup). The Syrian army was dominated by recruits from Alawite, Druze and rural Kurdish Sunni communities, a holdover from the French Mandate Levant Army (which became the Syrian army after independence). Beginning after the 1949 coup, Alawites dominated the officer and governmental corps during the 1960s. Former presidents

Hafez al-Assad Hafez al-Assad (6 October 193010 June 2000) was a Syrian politician and military officer who was the president of Syria from 1971 until Death and state funeral of Hafez al-Assad, his death in 2000. He was previously the Prime Minister of Syria ...

and his son, Bashar, are of Alawite descent.

Syrian civil war 2011–present

As a result of the Syrian civil war, in 2012 there was speculation of the possibility of reprisals against the Alawites leading to the re-creation of the Alawite State as a haven for

Bashar al-Assad Bashar al-Assad (born 11September 1965) is a Syrian politician, military officer and former dictator Sources characterising Assad as a dictator: who served as the president of Syria from 2000 until fall of the Assad regime, his government ...

and government leaders if Damascus fell. King

Abdullah II of Jordan Abdullah II (Abdullah bin Hussein; born 30 January 1962) is King of Jordan, having ascended the throne on 7 February 1999. He is a member of the Hashemites, who have been the reigning royal family of Jordan since 1921, and is traditionally reg ...

called it the "worst-case" scenario in the conflict, fearing a domino effect: fragmentation of the country along sectarian lines, with region-wide consequences. The December 2024 Syrian rebel offensives and the subsequent

fall of the Assad regime On 8 December 2024, the Assad regime collapsed during a 2024 Syrian opposition offensives, major offensive by Syrian opposition, opposition forces. The offensive was spearheaded by Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) and supported mainly by the Turk ...

sparked renewed speculation by some analysts about a potential revival of an Alawite state with

Russia Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the list of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the world, and extends across Time in Russia, eleven time zones, sharing Borders ...

n backing. For a brief period following the rebel takeover of Damascus,

Latakia Governorate Latakia Governorate ( / ALA-LC: ''Muḥāfaẓat al-Lādhiqīyah''), also transliterated as Ladhakia, is one of the 14 Governorates of Syria, governorates of Syria. It is situated in northwestern Syria, bordering Turkey's Hatay Province to the no ...

and Tartous Governorate (the historical territory of the Alawite State), were the only parts of Syria not under rebel control. Some Alawite villages there formed self-defense committees and set up checkpoints, but no expected Assadist national redoubt in the region came to fruition, probably because of the mixed attitudes of the Alawite population towards the HTS-led rebels. More importantly, the

insurgency An insurgency is a violent, armed rebellion by small, lightly armed bands who practice guerrilla warfare against a larger authority. The key descriptive feature of insurgency is its asymmetric warfare, asymmetric nature: small irregular forces ...

in Western Syria led by Alawite remnants of the Assad regime that killed 14 officers later that month can pose many challenges to the new government; which would subsequently led to the mass killings of the Alwaites as part of the crackdown on the remnants of the former regime.

Population

Postage stamps

File:Stamp Alaouites 1926 10pi air.jpg, alt=Brown postage stamp with red airplane, A double overprint: "Alaouites" over an aeroplane (indicating airmail) on 10-piastre Syrian stamp

References

External links

Map

{{Coord, 35.524212, 35.782646, display=title French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon 20th century in Mandatory Syria Latakia Former countries in West Asia States and territories established in 1920 States and territories disestablished in 1936 Former countries of the interwar period 1920 establishments in Asia 1936 disestablishments in Asia History of the Alawites