Akhbarism

Akhbarism () is a branch of Twelver Shia Islam, whose adherents do not perform imitation ( ''taqlid'') of an islamic jurist ( ''marja''). Akhbaris rejects the use of intercessory reasoning via trained Islamic jurists to derive verdicts in Islamic law, maintaining it is forbidden (''haram'') to perform imitation of anyone but one of the Fourteen Infallibles of Twelver Islam.

The term Akhbari comes from ''khabara'at'', news or reports, while Usuli comes from ''Uṣūl al-fiqh'', principles of Islamic jurisprudence. Akhbaris, unlike Usulis, do not accept '' Usul al-fiqh''—i.e. the attempt to draw up a coherent set of legal principles based on rulings made by the Imams prior to the Occultation (''ghayba'') of the last Imam. Gleave, ''Scripturalist Islam'', 2007: p.xvi Akhbaris claim to directly imitate the Ahl al-Bayt, on the grounds that the Imams are infallible and the marja, however learned in jurisprudence, is not. Knowledge of the religious rulings or Islamic jurisprudence used by Akhbaris is passed down by dead through living ''Muhaddith,'' who have narrated the rulings hadith of The Fourteen Infallibles without interpreting them. Interpretation of the Quran, and complete in-depth gnostic knowledge (''al-rāsikhūn fi al-ʿilm'' ) of revelation from the Imams is also passed down as well.

As of the twenty-first century, Akhbari form a small minority within Shia Islam, with Usulis making up the mainstream majority. Akhbarism as a revivalist movement started with the writings of Muhammad Amin al-Astarabadi (d. 1627) and achieved its greatest influence in the late Safavid (1501–1736) and early post-Safavid era. However, shortly thereafter Muhammad Baqir Behbahani (d. 1792), along with other Usuli mujtahids, eradicated most of the Akhbari movement. Today it is found primarily in the Basra, Iraq, Bahrain, Hyderabad, India, Tanzania and different cities of Pakistan (Karachi, Sehwan, Hyderabad, Lahore, Faisalabad, Chakwaal, and Gojar Khan) with reportedly "only a handful of Shia Ulama remaining Akhbari to the present day."

Background

The foundational beliefs of Akhbarism are that nothing but the aḥadīth of the Infallibles can serve as authoritative evidence in Islam.
Akhbaris consider themselves to be bounded by the Hadith of the two weighty things (''Hadith ath-Thaqalayn''), i.e. reported instructions by the Islamic prophet Muhammad to his followers to follow only two sources of divine guidance after his death — the Quran and his progeny, the Ahl al-Bayt, (which Twelvers consider to be the Twelve Imams).

Therefore, even for new events occurring during the Major Occultation, Akhbaris continue to follow the traditions of Ahlul Bayt, as per the saying of Imam Muhammad al-Mahdi where he said "As for the new events, which will occur (during my occultation) turn to the narrators of our traditions, because they are my proof to you, while I am the proof of Allah to them" Akhbari reject fatāwa based on '' ijtihad'', they also reject the permissibility of writing exegesis of the Qur'an without quoting the narrations of the infallible ''Ahlul-Bayt''. Akhbari quote the ''Hadith ath-Thaqalayn'' and several authentic traditions of the Twelve Imāms to prohibit the practice of exegesis. Akhbaris do not believe in generalization of Hadith, and believe that Hadiths are either right or wrong; they further believe that Hadiths contained in The Four Books of Shias are reliable.

It is reported that Imam Muhammad al-Mahdi acknowledged the Kitab al-Kafi (which is one of The Four Books of Shias) and said "al-Kafi is sufficient for our Shia (followers)".
(In contrast, Usulis doubt the credibility of this saying as it is not found in the Kitab al-Kafi.)

Akhbaris claim Usūlism created the basis of Usul al-fiqh (the hypothetical concepts and perceptions of some scholars) centuries after the major occultation. Among the earliest Shī‘a ''ulamā such as Muhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni and Ibn Babawayh, the most important activity was transmission of a ḥadīth.

At this time, Shī‘a distinguished themselves from the Sunni through the category of law, which employed such methods as qiyas (analogical reasoning). However, the Shī‘a developed law directly from the traditions of the Imāms.

Initially during the Buyid period, the Twelver ulamā' considered that since the Imām had gone into Occultation and his ''Nā'ib al-Khass'' was no longer present, all the functions invested in the Imām had lapsed. The principal functions of the Imām had been:
# Leading the Holy War (jihad)
# Division of the booty (qismat al-fay)
# Leading the Friday Prayer ( salat al-juma)
# Putting judicial decisions into effect (tanfidh al-ahkam)
# Imposing legal penalties (iqamat al-hudud)
# Receiving the religious taxes of zakāt and khums.

However, it soon became apparent that the situation caused by the lapse of functions of the Hidden Imām was extremely impractical and left the Twelver Shī‘a community at a great disadvantage, with no leadership, no organization and no financial structure.

Contrary to Usulis, Akhbaris believe in the perpetuity of Sharia from only the infalibles, so the right to interpret the Quran is only to 14 infallibles who have complete in-depth gnostic knowledge (''al-rāsikhūn fi al-ʿilm'' ). Whereas the former belief in the development of jurisprudence with time 'Uṣūl al-fiqh', Akhbaris seek religious rulings or Islamic jurisprudence from a dead or living Muhaddith, who has narrated or narrated the rulings hadith of The Fourteen Infallibles without interpreting them. Furthermore, Akhbaris say that The Fourteen Infallibles (which include the Shia Imāms) never permitted Ijtihad.

History

Akhbaris contend that, over the course of the history of Twelver Shi'ism since the Occultation, Usuli ulama have progressively usurped more and more of the functions of the Hidden Imam. They believe there have been five transgressions or stages of usurpation.

First transgression

As early as the 5th century AH / 11th century CE, more than 150 years after the Occultation of the 12th Imām, Shaykhu t-Ta'ifa reinterpreted the doctrine to allow delegation of the Imām's judicial authority to those who had studied ''fiqh''. Although he implies in his writings that this function should only be undertaken by the ulama if there is no one else to do it.

Shaykhu t-Taifa considered the ulamā' the best agents of the donor to distribute religious taxes since they knew to whom it should be distributed. Nevertheless, individuals were free to do this themselves if they wished. He allowed ''fuqahā to organize Friday prayers in absence of the Imām or his special representative.

The prominent Shī‘a scholars who rejected this thesis were:
# `Alam al-Huda (who was from among the Shaykhu t-Taifa's group)
# Ibn Idris
# Allamah al-Hilli

Second transgression

By the 13th century, Muhaqqiq al-Hilli was able to advance these concepts further, by extending the judicial role of the ulama to ''iqamat al-hudud''—the imposition of penalties by ulama themselves. In his writings it is possible to see the evolution in his thinking whereby the fuqahā' develop from the deputies of the donor for the distribution of religious taxes in his early writings to being the deputies of the Hidden Imām for collection and distribution of the taxes in his later works. Moojan Momen, ''An introduction to Shi'i Islam'', p.190 In effect, transgressing the limits set by Shaykhu t-Taifa (two centuries earlier) in his first transgression.

Third transgression

Muhaqqiq al-Karkhi (About 300 years after the second transgression) was the first to suggest, arguing from the hadith of ‘Umar ibn Hanzala, that the ulama were the ''Nā'ib al-'Amm'' (general representative) of the Hidden Imām. But he restricted his application of this argument to the assumption of the duty of leading Friday prayers.

Fourth transgression

It was Shahīd ath-Thānī ( Zayn al-Din al-Juba'i al'Amili) who took the concept of Nā'ib al-'Amm to its logical conclusion in the religious sphere and applied it to all of the religious functions and prerogatives of the Hidden Imām. Thus the judicial authority of the ulamā' now became a direct reflection of the authority of the Imām himself. It was now obligatory to pay the religious taxes directly to the ulamā' as the trustees of the Imām for distribution and the donor who distributed these himself was considered to obtain no reward. This is in direct contradiction to limits set by prior transgressions.

Furthermore, Shahīd ath-Thānī extended the range of those eligible to receive money from ''zakāt'' to include religious students and the ulamā' themselves, who thus became the recipients of the money as trustees of students. Even in the field of defensive ''jihād'', Shahīd ath-Thānī identified a role for the ulamā', (but not in offensive jihād where he agreed with Akhbari that the role of Hidden Imām had lapsed pending his return).

Although the aforementioned scholars were not ''mujtahids'' in their full capacity, they introduced innovative concepts into Shī‘a theology which later formed the basis of the exegetical school. Their innovations were not accepted by prominent Shī‘a scholars of their time and thus, remained mostly theoretical.

The traditional Shī‘a doctrine was, by its nature, fatal to the leadership of any regime except that of Imām al-Mahdi since they believed that an Islamic state can be established only under the leadership of an infallible Imām. Thus, the Shī‘a had little role to play in supporting the decisions of the state, in contrast with the Sunni tendency of offering their full support to the Ottoman Empire.

This caused a great deal of paranoia to the states where the Shī‘a were in majority. By the end of Safavid era the situation had become intense due to the rise of imperialism on a global scale. It was necessary to develop an alternate ideology for the survival of Iranian state. This is when a group of ulamā' were encouraged to squeeze out the possibility of extending the state's control over the Shia majority; by whatever means necessary.

The revival of Akhbārism, or "neo-Akhbārism" as it became known, was under the dean of Karbala scholarship, Yusuf Al Bahrani (1695–1772), who led an intellectual assault on Usuli thought in the mid-18th century. An Akhbari critique of Usulism had emerged in Bahrain at the beginning of the 18th century, partly spurred by the weaknesses of the Usuli sponsoring the Safavid empire.
By succeeding to the role of dean of Karbala as one of the pre-eminent scholars of the age, al-Bahrani's extended this Bahrain-based debate to the rest of the Shī‘a world.

Ayatollah Behbahani

Under al-Bahrani, Usuli scholarship was considered impure but Bahrani was not politically influential. It was Muhammad Baqir ibn Muhammad Akmal al-Wahid Behbahani who challenged and defeated the Akhbaris and eventually became the most politically influential cleric in Karbala in 1772. Bihbahani's theology was not welcomed by the Akhbaris. Although this controversy had begun as a minor disagreement on a few points, it eventually grew into a bitter, vituperative dispute culminating in Behbahani's declaration that the Akhbaris were infidels (Kuffar). However, the dispute remained purely intellectual.

At first there was a large population of Akhbari activists at the shrine cities of Iraq but it was Bihbahani who, at the end of the 18th century, reversed this and completely routed the Akhbaris at Karbala and Najaf. South Iraq, Bahrain and a few cities in Iran such as Kirman remained Akhbari strongholds for a few more decades but eventually the Usuli triumph was complete and only a handful of Shī‘a ulamā' remained Akhbari to the present day.

After the theological coup brought about by al-Wahid Bihbahani by military methods, the Usuli school became instrumental to the Iranian regime.

Fifth transgression

During the first Russo-Persian War (1804–1813), Fath Ali Shah's son and heir, Abbas Mirza, who was conducting the campaign, turned to the new ulama and obtained from Shaykh Ja'far Kashif al-Ghita' and other eminent clerics in Najaf and Isfahan a declaration of jihad against the Russians, thus implicitly recognizing their authority to issue such a declaration – one of the functions of the Hidden Imām. Kashif al-Ghita used the opportunity to extract from the state acknowledgment of the ulama's right to collect the religious taxes of Khums."

This followed the pattern of other transgressions by overthrowing the limits of its prior (fourth) transgression.

Iranian Revolution

Following the Iranian Revolution, the Usuli school has gained popularity among previously Akhbari communities. Usuli clerical power reached its natural conclusion with control and domination of the state as promulgated through ''Vilayat al-Faqih'' under the authority of the Supreme Leader.

Rejection of the Mujtahids

Akhbaris reject mujtahids. They practice this based on the last letter Imām Mahdi wrote to ‘Alī ibn Muhammad, fourth trusted follower of the Lesser Occultation. In the letter, Imām Zaman said:

Akhbaris claim that only the Imāms may be described as ''āyat Allah''s ( Ayatollahs, "signs of God") based on the ''Hadith-e-Tariq'',Hadith-e-Tariq
/ref> and that no one else has the right to ascribe this divinely appointed title to themselves. For example, the ''Hadith-i Tariq'' says:
Historically it was only in the early 19th century that ordinary ''mujtahids'' began to describe themselves as 'Ayatollahs.'

Notable Akhbari scholars

* Muhammad ibn Yaʿqūb al-Kulaynī
* al-Shaykh al-Saduq
* ʿAbdullāh ibn Ṣāliḥ al-Samāhījī
* Muḥammad Baqer Majlesi Akhbari
* Al-Hurr al-Amilī Akhbārī
* Mirza Ḥusayn Nūrī Tabarsi
* Mirza Muhammad al-Akhbari
* Mirza Muhammad Kamil Dehlavi
* Muhammad Amin al-Astarabadi
* Qazi Nurullah Shushtarī
* Salih Al-Karzakani
* Yusuf al-Bahrani

See also

*Ahl al-Hadith

References

Bibliography

Rival Empires of Trade and Imami Shiism in Eastern Arabia, 1300-1800
Juan Cole, International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 19, No. 2, (May 1987), pp. 177–203
* Andrew J. Newman
The Nature of the Akhbārī/Uṣūlī Dispute in Late Ṣafawid Iran. Part 1: 'Abdallāh al-Samāhijī's "Munyat al-Mumārisīn
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 55, No. 1 (1992), pp. 22–51

Killing of Prophet Muhammad's daughter
*

{{Islam topics, state=collapsed

Shia Islam
Twelver Shi'ism
Ja'fari jurisprudence
Fatwas