The ackee (''Blighia sapida''), also known as acki, akee, or ackee apple, is a fruit of the

Sapindaceae The Sapindaceae are a family (biology), family of flowering plants in the order Sapindales known as the soapberry family. It contains 138 genera and 1,858 accepted species. Examples include Aesculus, horse chestnut, maples, ackee and lychee. The ...

( soapberry) family, as are the

lychee Lychee ( , ; ''Litchi chinensis''; ) is a monotypic taxon and the sole member in the genus ''Litchi'' in the soapberry family, Sapindaceae. There are three distinct subspecies of lychee. The most common is the Indochinese lychee found in So ...

and the

longan ''Dimocarpus longan'', commonly known as the longan () and dragon's eye, is a tropical tree species that produces edible fruit. It is one of the better-known tropical members of the soapberry family Sapindaceae, to which the lychee and rambu ...

. It is native to tropical

West Africa West Africa, also known as Western Africa, is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations geoscheme for Africa#Western Africa, United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Gha ...

. The scientific name honours Captain

William Bligh William Bligh (9 September 1754 – 7 December 1817) was a Vice-admiral (Royal Navy), Royal Navy vice-admiral and colonial administrator who served as the governor of New South Wales from 1806 to 1808. He is best known for his role in the Muti ...

who took the fruit from

Jamaica Jamaica is an island country in the Caribbean Sea and the West Indies. At , it is the third-largest island—after Cuba and Hispaniola—of the Greater Antilles and the Caribbean. Jamaica lies about south of Cuba, west of Hispaniola (the is ...

to the Royal Botanic Gardens in

Kew Kew () is a district in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames. Its population at the 2011 census was 11,436. Kew is the location of the Royal Botanic Gardens ("Kew Gardens"), now a World Heritage Site, which includes Kew Palace. Kew is ...

, England, in 1793. The English common name is derived from the West African Akan-language name . Although having a long-held reputation as being poisonous with potential fatalities, the fruit

aril An aril (), also called arillus, is a specialized outgrowth from a seed that partly or completely covers the seed. An arillode, or false aril, is sometimes distinguished: whereas an aril grows from the attachment point of the seed to the ova ...

s are renowned as delicious when ripe, prepared properly, and cooked and are a feature of various

Caribbean cuisine Caribbean cuisine is a fusion of West African cuisine, West African,"Cuisine."
(Caribbean.
national fruit This is a list of national fruits alphabetically arranged by country. Some national fruits are officially designated, some are unofficial. References {{National symbols Fruit Fruits Fruit In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing struc ...

of Jamaica and is considered a delicacy.

Botany

Ackee is an

evergreen In botany, an evergreen is a plant which has Leaf, foliage that remains green and functional throughout the year. This contrasts with deciduous plants, which lose their foliage completely during the winter or dry season. Consisting of many diffe ...

tree that grows about 10 metres tall, with a short

trunk Trunk may refer to: Biology * Trunk (anatomy), synonym for torso * Trunk (botany), a tree's central superstructure, and the stem of woody plants * Trunk of corpus callosum, in neuroanatomy * Elephant trunk, the proboscis of an elephant Comput ...

and a dense

crown A crown is a traditional form of head adornment, or hat, worn by monarchs as a symbol of their power and dignity. A crown is often, by extension, a symbol of the monarch's government or items endorsed by it. The word itself is used, parti ...

. The leaves are paripinnately,

compound Compound may refer to: Architecture and built environments * Compound (enclosure), a cluster of buildings having a shared purpose, usually inside a fence or wall ** Compound (fortification), a version of the above fortified with defensive struc ...

long, with 6–10 elliptical to oblong leathery leaflets. Each leaflet is long and wide. The

inflorescence In botany, an inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a plant's Plant stem, stem that is composed of a main branch or a system of branches. An inflorescence is categorized on the basis of the arrangement of flowers on a mai ...

s are fragrant, up to 20 cm long, with

unisexual Dioecy ( ; ; adj. dioecious, ) is a characteristic of certain species that have distinct unisexual individuals, each producing either male or female gametes, either directly (in animals) or indirectly (in seed plants). Dioecious reproduction is ...

flowers that bloom during warm months. Each flower has five greenish-white

petal Petals are modified leaves that form an inner whorl surrounding the reproductive parts of flowers. They are often brightly coloured or unusually shaped to attract pollinators. All of the petals of a flower are collectively known as the ''corol ...

s, which are fragrant. The fruit is pear-shaped and has three lobes (two to four lobes are common). When it ripens it turns from green to a bright red to yellow-orange and splits open to reveal three large, shiny black seeds, each partly surrounded by soft, creamy or spongy, white to yellow flesh — the

having a nut-like flavor and texture of scrambled eggs. The fruit typically weighs . The tree can produce fruit throughout the year, although January–March and October–November are typically periods of fruit production. File:2013.11-411-172 Akee,leaves(e-s) Bobo-Dioulasso,BF thu14nov2013-1025h.jpg, Leaves, upper and lower surface File:Ackee Flower 001.JPG,

Inflorescence In botany, an inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a plant's Plant stem, stem that is composed of a main branch or a system of branches. An inflorescence is categorized on the basis of the arrangement of flowers on a mai ...

File:Akee.jpg, Fruit as it splits upon ripening "smile" File:2013.11-411-155 Akee,fruit(e-s),seed&aril Bobo-Dioulasso,BF sun10nov2013-1740h.jpg, Showing ripe fruit and seeds with their arils File:2013.11-411-169 Akee,fruit(part),seed&aril(i-s) Bobo-Dioulasso,BF thu14nov2013-0953h.jpg, Part of ripe fruit, two seeds with their arils still attached File:2013.11-411-169 Akee,seed&aril(whole,LS) Bobo-Dioulasso,BF thu14nov2013-0953h.jpg, Ripe seeds with their arils (dorsal view and in longitudinal section)

Cultivars

There are up to as many as forty-eight cultivars of ackee, which are grouped into either "butter" or "cheese" types. The cheese type is pale yellow in color and is more robust and finds use in the canning industry. The butter type is deeper yellow in color, and is more delicate and better suited for certain cuisine.

History and culinary use

Imported to Jamaica from West Africa before 1773, the use of ackee in

Jamaican cuisine Jamaican cuisine includes a mixture of cooking techniques, flavours and spices influenced by Amerindian cuisine, Amerindian, Cuisine of West Africa, West African, Irish cuisine, Irish, English cuisine, English, French cuisine, French, Portuguese ...

is prominent. Ackee is the national fruit of Jamaica, whilst

ackee and saltfish Ackee and saltfish is the Jamaican national dish prepared with sautéed ackee and salted codfish. Background The ackee fruit ('' Blighia sapida'') is the national fruit of Jamaica. It was brought to the Caribbean from Ghana before 1725 as 'Ack ...

is the official national dish of Jamaica. The ackee is allowed to open fully before picking in order to eliminate toxicity. When it has "yawned" or "smiled", the seeds are discarded and the fresh, firm arils are

parboil Parboiling (or leaching) is the partial or semi boiling of food as the first step in cooking. The word is from the Old French ''parbouillir'', 'to boil thoroughly' but by mistaken association with "part", it has acquired this definition. The w ...

ed in salted water or milk, and may be fried in butter to create a dish. In Caribbean cooking, they may be cooked with

codfish Cod (: cod) is the common name for the demersal fish genus '' Gadus'', belonging to the family Gadidae. Cod is also used as part of the common name for a number of other fish species, and one species that belongs to genus ''Gadus'' is commonly ...

and vegetables, or may be added to stew, curry, soup or rice with seasonings.

Nutrition

Ackee contains a moderate amount of carbohydrates, protein, and fat, providing 51–58% of the dry weight of the arils as composed of

fatty acid In chemistry, in particular in biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid with an aliphatic chain, which is either saturated and unsaturated compounds#Organic chemistry, saturated or unsaturated. Most naturally occurring fatty acids have an ...

s –

linoleic Linoleic acid (LA) is an organic compound with the formula . Both alkene groups () are ''cis''. It is a fatty acid sometimes denoted 18:2 (n−6) or 18:2 ''cis''-9,12. A linoleate is a salt or ester of this acid. Linoleic acid is a polyunsatu ...

palmitic Palmitic acid (hexadecanoic acid in IUPAC nomenclature) is a fatty acid with a 16-carbon chain. It is the most common saturated fatty acid found in animals, plants and microorganisms.Gunstone, F. D., John L. Harwood, and Albert J. Dijkstra. The Li ...

, and

stearic acid Stearic acid ( , ) is a saturated fatty acid with an 18-carbon chain. The IUPAC name is octadecanoic acid. It is a soft waxy solid with the formula . The triglyceride derived from three molecules of stearic acid is called stearin. Stearic acid ...

s. The raw fruit is a rich source of

vitamin C Vitamin C (also known as ascorbic acid and ascorbate) is a water-soluble vitamin found in citrus and other fruits, berries and vegetables. It is also a generic prescription medication and in some countries is sold as a non-prescription di ...

Society and culture

The ackee is prominently featured in the Jamaican

mento Mento is a style of Music of Jamaica, Jamaican folk music that predates and has greatly influenced ska and reggae music. It is a fusion of African rhythmic elements and European elements, which reached peak popularity in the 1940s and 1950s. ...

style folksong "

Linstead Market "Linstead Market" is a Jamaican folk song of the mento type that tells of a mother who goes to the market with her ackee fruit but does not sell any, with the result that her children will go hungry.The Beat's 1982 album ''

Special Beat Service ''Special Beat Service'' is the third studio album by the British ska band the Beat, released on 1 October 1982 by Go-Feet Records. Like the rest of their material, it was released in the US under the name "the English Beat". It peaked at No. 3 ...

'' includes the song "Ackee 1-2-3".

Toxicity

The unripened aril and the inedible portions of the fruit contain hypoglycin toxins including

hypoglycin A Hypoglycin A is a naturally occurring amino acid derivative found in the unripened fruit of the Ackee tree ('' Blighia sapida'') and in the seeds of the box elder tree (''Acer negundo''). It is toxic if ingested, and is the causative agent of Jam ...

and

hypoglycin B Hypoglycin B is a naturally occurring organic compound in the species '' Blighia sapida''. It is particularly concentrated in the fruit of the plant especially in the seeds. Hypoglycin B is toxic if ingested and is one of the causative agents of ...

, known as "soapberry toxins". Hypoglycin A is found in both the seeds and the arils, while hypoglycin B is found only in the seeds. Minimal quantities of the toxin are found in the ripe arils. In the unripe fruit, depending on the season and exposure to the sun, the concentrations may be up to 10 to 100 times greater. These two molecules are converted in the body to methylenecyclopropylacetic acid (MCPA), and are toxic with potential

lethal Lethality (also called deadliness or perniciousness) is how capable something is of causing death. Most often it is used when referring to diseases, chemical weapons, biological weapons, or their toxic chemical components. The use of this term ...

ity. MCPA and hypoglycin A inhibit several

enzyme An enzyme () is a protein that acts as a biological catalyst by accelerating chemical reactions. The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrate (chemistry), substrates, and the enzyme converts the substrates into different mol ...

s involved in the breakdown of

acyl CoA Acyl-CoA is a group of CoA-based coenzymes that metabolize carboxylic acids. Fatty acyl-CoA's are susceptible to beta oxidation, forming, ultimately, acetyl-CoA. The acetyl-CoA enters the citric acid cycle, eventually forming several equivalents ...

compounds, often binding irreversibly to

coenzyme A Coenzyme A (CoA, SHCoA, CoASH) is a coenzyme, notable for its role in the Fatty acid metabolism#Synthesis, synthesis and Fatty acid metabolism#.CE.B2-Oxidation, oxidation of fatty acids, and the oxidation of pyruvic acid, pyruvate in the citric ac ...

carnitine Carnitine is a quaternary ammonium compound involved in metabolism in most mammals, plants, and some bacteria. In support of energy metabolism, carnitine transports long-chain fatty acids from the cytosol into mitochondria to be oxidized for f ...

and

carnitine acyltransferase I Carnitine O-palmitoyltransferase (also called carnitine palmitoyltransferase) is a mitochondrial transferase enzyme () involved in the metabolism of palmitoylcarnitine into palmitoyl-CoA. A related transferase is carnitine acyltransferase. Molec ...

and II, reducing their

bioavailability In pharmacology, bioavailability is a subcategory of absorption and is the fraction (%) of an administered drug that reaches the systemic circulation. By definition, when a medication is administered intravenously, its bioavailability is 100%. H ...

and consequently inhibiting

beta oxidation In biochemistry and metabolism, beta oxidation (also β-oxidation) is the catabolic process by which fatty acid molecules are broken down in the cytosol in prokaryotes and in the mitochondria in eukaryotes to generate acetyl-CoA. Acetyl-CoA enter ...

s. Glucose stores are consequently depleted leading to

hypoglycemia Hypoglycemia (American English), also spelled hypoglycaemia or hypoglycæmia (British English), sometimes called low blood sugar, is a fall in blood sugar to levels below normal, typically below 70 mg/dL (3.9 mmol/L). Whipple's tria ...

, and to a condition called

Jamaican vomiting sickness Jamaican vomiting sickness, also known as toxic hypoglycemic syndrome (THS), acute ackee fruit intoxication, or ackee poisoning, is an acute illness caused by the toxins hypoglycin A and hypoglycin B, which are present in fruit of the ackee tree. ...

. These effects occur only when the unripe aril (or an inedible part of the fruit) is consumed. Though ackee is used widely in traditional dishes, research on its potential hypoglycin toxicity has been sparse and preliminary, requiring evaluation in well-designed

clinical research Clinical research is a branch of medical research that involves people and aims to determine the effectiveness (efficacy) and safety of medications, devices, diagnostic products, and treatment regimens intended for improving human health. The ...

to better understand its

pharmacology Pharmacology is the science of drugs and medications, including a substance's origin, composition, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, therapeutic use, and toxicology. More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur betwee ...

, food uses, and methods for detoxification. In 2011, it was found that as the fruit ripens, the seeds act as a sink whereby the hypoglycin A in the arils convert to hypoglycin B in the seeds. In other words, the seeds help in detoxifying the arils, bringing the concentration of hypoglycin A to a level which is generally safe for consumption.

Commercial use

Ackee canned in brine is a commodity item and is used for export by Jamaica, Haiti and Belize. If propagated by seed, trees will begin to fruit in 3–4 years. Cuttings may yield fruit in 1–2 years.

Other uses

The fruit has various uses in West Africa and in rural areas of the Caribbean Islands, including use of its "soap" properties as a laundering agent or fish poison. The fragrant flowers may be used as decoration or

cologne Cologne ( ; ; ) is the largest city of the States of Germany, German state of North Rhine-Westphalia and the List of cities in Germany by population, fourth-most populous city of Germany with nearly 1.1 million inhabitants in the city pr ...

, and the durable

heartwood Wood is a structural tissue/material found as xylem in the stems and roots of trees and other woody plants. It is an organic materiala natural composite of cellulosic fibers that are strong in tension and embedded in a matrix of lignin t ...

used for construction,

pilings A pile or piling is a vertical structural element of a deep foundation, driven or drilled deep into the ground at the building site. A deep foundation is a type of foundation that transfers building loads to the earth farther down from th ...

, oars, paddles and casks. In African

traditional medicine Traditional medicine (also known as indigenous medicine or folk medicine) refers to the knowledge, skills, and practices rooted in the cultural beliefs of various societies, especially Indigenous groups, used for maintaining health and treatin ...

, the ripe arils, leaves or bark were used to treat minor ailments. The seeds were formerly used as standardized weights for weighing gold dust, leading to the currency issued by Great Britain in the former colony of Gold Coast to be named the "

Gold Coast ackey The ackey was a currency issued for the Gold Coast by the British between 1796 and 1818. It was subdivided into 8 ''takoe'' and was equal to the British halfcrown, i.e., 1 takoe = 3 pence and 1 pound = 8 ackey. The currency consisted of silve ...

Vernacular names in African languages

References

External links

Ackee and saltfish: Jamaica's breakfast of champions – BBC Travel
{{Use dmy dates, date=October 2018 Jamaican cuisine National symbols of Jamaica Fruit vegetables Tropical fruit Fruits originating in Africa Flora of West Tropical Africa Trees of Africa Sapindaceae Plants described in 1806 Taxa named by Charles Konig