Akan (ethnic Group)
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The Akan () people are a Kwa group living primarily in present-day
Ghana Ghana, officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It is situated along the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, and shares borders with Côte d’Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, and Togo to t ...
and in parts of
Ivory Coast Ivory Coast, also known as Côte d'Ivoire and officially the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire, is a country on the southern coast of West Africa. Its capital city of Yamoussoukro is located in the centre of the country, while its largest List of ci ...
and
Togo Togo, officially the Togolese Republic, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Ghana to Ghana–Togo border, the west, Benin to Benin–Togo border, the east and Burkina Faso to Burkina Faso–Togo border, the north. It is one of the le ...
in
West Africa West Africa, also known as Western Africa, is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations geoscheme for Africa#Western Africa, United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Gha ...
. The Akan speak languages within the Central Tano branch of the Potou–Tano subfamily of the Niger–Congo family.''Languages of the Akan Area: Papers in Western Kwa Linguistics and on the Linguistic Geography of the Area of Ancient''. Isaac K. Chinebuah, H. Max J. Trutenau, Linguistic Circle of Accra, Basler Afrika Bibliographien, 1976, pp. 168. Subgroups of the Akan people include: the
Adansi Adanse or Adansi is one of the earliest Akan states, located in the southern part of present-day Ashanti Region, Ghana. Widely regarded in oral tradition as a spiritual and ancestral homeland of many Akan polities, Adansi was an early center of ...
,
Agona Agona is a small town in Ghana. It is the capital of Sekyere South District. It is located about 40 km from Kumasi Kumasi is a city and the capital of the Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly and the Ashanti Region of Ghana. It is the second la ...
,
Akuapem Akuapem may refer to: * Akuapem people, an ethnic group of Ghana * Akuapem dialect, their language * Akuapem Kingdom Akropong is a town in South Ghana and is the capital of the Akuapim North District, a district in the Eastern Region of South ...
,
Akwamu The Akwamu Empire was a powerful Akan state that rose to prominence in the 17th century in what is now southeastern Ghana. According to oral tradition, the Akwamu traced their origins to the Twifo-Heman area, but the earliest historical records p ...
,
Akyem The Akyem Kingdoms (also known as Greater Akyem, Akim, Great Akim, or Akan Grande) were prominent Akan people, Akan kingdoms in precolonial Ghana, consisting of the three related states of Akyem Abuakwa, Akyem Kotoku, and Akyem Bosome. Located in ...
, Anyi,
Asante Asante may refer to: *Asante people, an ethnic group in Ghana *Asante Empire *Asante (name) *Asante dialect, a dialect of the Akan languages * Asante Kotoko S.C., a Ghanaian professional association football club *Asante (album), 1974 jazz album b ...
, Baoulé,
Bono Paul David Hewson (born 10 May 1960), known by the nickname Bono ( ), is an Irish singer-songwriter and activist. He is a founding member, the lead vocalist, and primary lyricist of the rock band U2. Bono is known for his impassioned voca ...
, Chakosi, Fante,
Kwahu Kwahu or Kwawu is an area and group of people that live in Ghana and are part of the Twi-speaking Akan people, Akan group. The region has been dubbed Asaase Aban, or the Natural Fortress, given its position as the highest habitable elevation in th ...
,
Sefwi Sefwi or Sehwi may refer to: * Sefwi people, an ethnic group of Ghana * Sehwi language, their language * Kingdom of Sefwi The Kingdom of Sefwi was a historical Akan state located in the western forest zone of what is now Ghana. It emerged in the ...
,
Wassa The Wasa (or Wassa) is an Akan ethnic group predominantly inhabiting the Western Region of Ghana Ghana, officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It is situated along the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to ...
,
Ahanta The Ahanta/Ayinda are Akan people who live to the north and east of the Nzema. The Ahanta land has been historically known as one of the richest areas on the coast of what is now Ghana. The Ahanta land spans from Beposo to Ankobra in what is no ...
,
Denkyira Denkyira (also known as Denkira, Denchira, Inguira, or Dinkira) was a powerful Akan kingdom that rose to prominence in precolonial Ghana, dominating large parts of the forest zone in the south-central Gold Coast. Centered around its capital at ...
and Nzema, among others. The Akan subgroups all have cultural attributes in common; most notably the tracing of royal matrilineal descent in the inheritance of property, and for succession to high political office. All Akans are considered royals in status, but not all are in royal succession or hold titles.


Origins and Oral Traditions

Early European writers in the 19th and 20th centuries proposed that the Akan originated from distant places such as
Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...
,
Libya Libya, officially the State of Libya, is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to Egypt–Libya border, the east, Sudan to Libya–Sudan border, the southeast, Chad to Chad–L ...
,
Nubia Nubia (, Nobiin language, Nobiin: , ) is a region along the Nile river encompassing the area between the confluence of the Blue Nile, Blue and White Nile, White Niles (in Khartoum in central Sudan), and the Cataracts of the Nile, first cataract ...
, the
Ghana Empire The Ghana Empire (), also known as simply Ghana, Ghanata, or Wagadu, was an ancient western-Sahelian empire based in the modern-day southeast of Mauritania and western Mali. It is uncertain among historians when Ghana's ruling dynasty began. T ...
, the
Mossi Kingdoms The Mossi Kingdoms, were a group of kingdoms in modern-day Burkina Faso that dominated the region of the Volta River, upper Volta river for hundreds of years. The largest Mossi kingdom was that of Ouagadougou. The king of Ouagadougou, known as ...
, or the broader
sahel region Sahel (, "Sahel") is one of Burkina Faso's 13 administrative regions. It was created on 2 July 2001. The region's capital is Dori. Four provinces make up the region— Oudalan, Séno, Soum, and Yagha. This region is the northernmost part of ...
. These origins and migration theories have since been rejected by modern historians. Archaeological and oral evidence now supports a local and regional origin, linking the Akan to areas once inhabited by the ancient
Kintampo Complex The Kintampo complex, also known as the Kintampo culture, Kintampo Neolithic, and Kintampo Tradition, was established by Saharan agropastoralists, who may have been Niger-Congo or Nilo-Saharan speakers and were distinct from the earlier residi ...
of Bono across the forest margins of present-day
Ghana Ghana, officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It is situated along the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, and shares borders with Côte d’Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, and Togo to t ...
and
Côte d'Ivoire Ivory Coast, also known as Côte d'Ivoire and officially the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire, is a country on the southern coast of West Africa. Its capital city of Yamoussoukro is located in the centre of the country, while its largest city and ...
. Oral traditions and archaeological evidence indicate that the Akan trace their origins to
Bono Paul David Hewson (born 10 May 1960), known by the nickname Bono ( ), is an Irish singer-songwriter and activist. He is a founding member, the lead vocalist, and primary lyricist of the rock band U2. Bono is known for his impassioned voca ...
in the northern
forest A forest is an ecosystem characterized by a dense ecological community, community of trees. Hundreds of definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, ...
and ( forest–savanna transition zone,) with early settlements such of Bono-Manso,
Begho Begho, also known historically as Nsoko or Insoco, was a city located in the Bono state of Ghana, located just south of its successor community, Hani. Begho was established as a trading entrepôt and cosmopolitan centre linking merchants from ac ...
,
Wenchi Wenchi is a town and the capital of Wenchi Municipal of the Bono Region in the middle-belt of Ghana. Wenchi is located at 7.73333 atitude in decimal degrees -2.1 ongitude in decimal degreesat an average elevation/altitude of 304 meters. ...
, Asantemanso and Adansemanso playing central roles in their historical development. The
Bono people The Bono, also known as the Brong or Abron, are an Akan people of central Ghana and northeastern Ivory Coast. They speak the Bono Twi and form one of the largest matrilineal Akan groups. Historically, the Bono were the first Akan to develop a ...
recount
Bonoman Bono State (also known as Bonoman) was the first centralized Akan state, founded by the Bono people in what is now central Ghana. Bonoman is generally considered a cultural, political ancestor and origin to Akan subgroups that migrated southwar ...
as the first centralized Akan state—with it's capital
Bono Manso Manso or Maaso, often referred to as Bono-Manso in historical contexts, was an urban centre of significant religious, political, and economic influence. It was situated on the northern Forest–savanna mosaic, forest savanna zone of Akan realm ...
founded by a leader named
Asaman Asaman is a village in the Afigya Sekyere District of Ashanti Region, Ashanti. The village is known for the Konadu Yiadom Secondary School. The school is a second cycle institution. References

{{coord, 6, 26, 00, N, 1, 52, 00, W, display ...
, who emerged with his people from a sacred cave known as
Amowi Amowi, also known as Amoyu, is a village in Ashanti Region, Ghana. The population is approximately 500. The nearest city is Kumasi Kumasi is a city and the capital of the Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly and the Ashanti Region of Ghana. It is ...
near modern day
Techiman Techiman (Akan language, Akan: ''Takyiman'') is a city and the capital of the Techiman Municipal District, Techiman Metropolitan District and the Bono East Region of Ghana. The city is located about from Sunyani and about away from Kumasi. I ...
. According to tradition,
God In monotheistic belief systems, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. In polytheistic belief systems, a god is "a spirit or being believed to have created, or for controlling some part of the un ...
created the
Bono Paul David Hewson (born 10 May 1960), known by the nickname Bono ( ), is an Irish singer-songwriter and activist. He is a founding member, the lead vocalist, and primary lyricist of the rock band U2. Bono is known for his impassioned voca ...
before the sky itself, and their land was the birthplace of humankind. The word “Bono” is said to mean “original” or “first.” Many Akan clans locate their origins in
Adanse Adanse or Adansi is one of the earliest Akan states, located in the southern part of present-day Ashanti Region, Ghana. Widely regarded in oral tradition as a spiritual and ancestral homeland of many Akan polities, Adansi was an early center of ...
, considered a sacred place of creation and early political formation.
Adanse Adanse or Adansi is one of the earliest Akan states, located in the southern part of present-day Ashanti Region, Ghana. Widely regarded in oral tradition as a spiritual and ancestral homeland of many Akan polities, Adansi was an early center of ...
is described as the first among five foundational states—Adanse,
Akyem The Akyem Kingdoms (also known as Greater Akyem, Akim, Great Akim, or Akan Grande) were prominent Akan people, Akan kingdoms in precolonial Ghana, consisting of the three related states of Akyem Abuakwa, Akyem Kotoku, and Akyem Bosome. Located in ...
,
Assin The Assin (also known as Asin and Asen) are an ethnic group of the Akan people and Guan (Etsii) people who live in Ghana. The Assin people live predominantly in the Central Region of Ghana. The capital of the Assin district is Assin Foso Ass ...
,
Denkyira Denkyira (also known as Denkira, Denchira, Inguira, or Dinkira) was a powerful Akan kingdom that rose to prominence in precolonial Ghana, dominating large parts of the forest zone in the south-central Gold Coast. Centered around its capital at ...
, and Asante—collectively called Akanman Piesie Anum.
Clans A clan is a group of people united by actual or perceived kinship and descent. Even if lineage details are unknown, a clan may claim descent from a founding member or apical ancestor who serves as a symbol of the clan's unity. Many societie ...
such as the
Asona Asona is one of the eight main Akan people, Akan clans. Totem The totem of the Asona people is the crow or snake. Major towns The major towns of the Asona people include;Kyebi, Offinso, Ejisu, Mankessim, Sandema, Akropong Akuapem,Sekyere Beposo, ...
,
Agona Agona is a small town in Ghana. It is the capital of Sekyere South District. It is located about 40 km from Kumasi Kumasi is a city and the capital of the Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly and the Ashanti Region of Ghana. It is the second la ...
,
Oyoko Oyoko is a small town in the Sekyere Kumawu District of the Ashanti Region of Ghana. The town is in the Kumawu parliamentary constituency. Oyoko is near Effiduase, about northeast of Kumasi, the regional capital. Notable places There are two ...
, and
Bretuo Bretuo is one of the eight major Akan clans, a group of ethnic people in West Africa primarily located in Ghana as well as parts of Ivory Coast and Togo. Totem The totem of the Bretuo people is the leopard, a large cat native to Africa and Asia ...
are believed to have either originated from, settled, or have passed through Adanse. The
Asante people The Asante, also known as Ashanti in English (), are part of the Akan people, Akan ethnic group and are native to the Ashanti Region of modern-day Ghana. Asantes are the last group to emerge out of the various Akan civilisations. Twi is spoken by ...
trace their roots to Asantemanso, where the matriarch Ankyewa Nyame is said to have descended with sacred regalia, and where the founding clans emerged from the earth. The
Twifo Twifo was an early Akan people, Akan state established during the initial Akan settlement of the Adansi forest. As the Akan expanded southward, the Twifo emerged as one of the key inland gold-producing polities. By the early 16th century, Eur ...
trace their ancestral homelands to the region between the Pra River and Kwisa range, including sacred towns like Apagya and Nimiaso. These traditions emphasize sacred geography, clan emergence, and spiritual unity, with the deity Bona acting as guardian of Adanse's early cohesion. The
Akwamu The Akwamu Empire was a powerful Akan state that rose to prominence in the 17th century in what is now southeastern Ghana. According to oral tradition, the Akwamu traced their origins to the Twifo-Heman area, but the earliest historical records p ...
identify early capitals at Twifo-Hemang, Asamangkese and later Nyanaoase, located near key trade routes in the southern forests. As their power grew, the capital shifted multiple times, eventually crossing the Volta Gorge. In the south and west, the
Fante people The modern Mfantsefo or Fante ("Fanti" is an older spelling) confederacy is a combination of Akan people and aboriginal Guan people. The Fante people are mainly located in the Central and Western regions of Ghana, occupying the forest and coast ...
recount a migration from Bono-Tekyiman to the coast, where they encountered the
Etsi The European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) is an independent, not-for-profit, standardization organization operating in the field of Information and communications technology, information and communications. ETSI supports the de ...
. Their founding is tied to
Mankessim Mankessim is a town in the Central Region of Ghana, West Africa. It is approximately 75 km west of Accra, on the main road to Sekondi-Takoradi. It is the traditional headquarters of the Fante ethnic group of Ghana. Mankessim's history is linked ...
and the rock shrine Nananom Pow, linked to the legendary ancestral trio Obrumankoma, Odapagyan, and Oson. The Aowin (also known as
Agni Agni ( ) is the Deva (Hinduism), Hindu god of fire. As the Guardians of the directions#Aṣṭa-Dikpāla ("Guardians of Eight Directions"), guardian deity of the southeast direction, he is typically found in southeast corners of Hindu temples. ...
) claim an early presence in the western forests. Their kingdom dominated regional trade and provided refuge to displaced groups before its decline during wars with
Denkyira Denkyira (also known as Denkira, Denchira, Inguira, or Dinkira) was a powerful Akan kingdom that rose to prominence in precolonial Ghana, dominating large parts of the forest zone in the south-central Gold Coast. Centered around its capital at ...
and
Asante Asante may refer to: *Asante people, an ethnic group in Ghana *Asante Empire *Asante (name) *Asante dialect, a dialect of the Akan languages * Asante Kotoko S.C., a Ghanaian professional association football club *Asante (album), 1974 jazz album b ...
. The
Sefwi people The Sefwi are an Akan people. The Akan sub-group live predominantly in Western North Region of Ghana. The Akan sub-group speak the Akan dialect Sefwi language. The term Sefwi, which refers to the language spoken and the Sefwi people mythic ...
trace their origins to the
Bono Paul David Hewson (born 10 May 1960), known by the nickname Bono ( ), is an Irish singer-songwriter and activist. He is a founding member, the lead vocalist, and primary lyricist of the rock band U2. Bono is known for his impassioned voca ...
and
Adansi Adanse or Adansi is one of the earliest Akan states, located in the southern part of present-day Ashanti Region, Ghana. Widely regarded in oral tradition as a spiritual and ancestral homeland of many Akan polities, Adansi was an early center of ...
areas but describe distinct migrations into the western forests in response to 17th–18th century warfare. The Nzima maintain coastal roots but preserve inland migration narratives, reflecting cultural blending with Akan-speaking neighbors. Further west, the
Baoulé people The Baule or Baoulé (Baoulé language, Baule: ''Baule'' a.u.le awle are an Akan people, Akan people and one of the largest ethnicities in Ivory Coast. The Baoulé are traditionally farmers who live in the centre of Ivory Coast, in a F ...
of
Côte d'Ivoire Ivory Coast, also known as Côte d'Ivoire and officially the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire, is a country on the southern coast of West Africa. Its capital city of Yamoussoukro is located in the centre of the country, while its largest city and ...
trace their ancestry to early Akan royal lineages and formed independent polities that retained strong ties to central Akan traditions.


History


Prehistory and Early Settlements

The earliest cultural developments in the Akan forest zone are associated with the
Kintampo Complex The Kintampo complex, also known as the Kintampo culture, Kintampo Neolithic, and Kintampo Tradition, was established by Saharan agropastoralists, who may have been Niger-Congo or Nilo-Saharan speakers and were distinct from the earlier residi ...
(c. 2000–500
BCE Common Era (CE) and Before the Common Era (BCE) are year notations for the Gregorian calendar (and its predecessor, the Julian calendar), the world's most widely used calendar era. Common Era and Before the Common Era are alternatives to the o ...
), which marked the transition from
foraging Foraging is searching for wild food resources. It affects an animal's fitness because it plays an important role in an animal's ability to survive and reproduce. Foraging theory is a branch of behavioral ecology that studies the foraging behavi ...
to
sedentary Sedentary lifestyle is a lifestyle type, in which one is physically inactive and does little or no physical movement and/or exercise. A person living a sedentary lifestyle is often sitting or lying down while engaged in an activity like soc ...
village life. Archaeological evidence from central
Ghana Ghana, officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It is situated along the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, and shares borders with Côte d’Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, and Togo to t ...
reveals that early communities practiced mixed
farming Agriculture encompasses crop and livestock production, aquaculture, and forestry for food and non-food products. Agriculture was a key factor in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created ...
, kept
domestic animals This page gives a list of domesticated animals, also including a list of animals which are or may be currently undergoing the process of domestication and animals that have an extensive relationship with humans beyond simple predation. This includ ...
, and produced decorated
ceramics A ceramic is any of the various hard, brittle, heat-resistant, and corrosion-resistant materials made by shaping and then firing an inorganic, nonmetallic material, such as clay, at a high temperature. Common examples are earthenware, porce ...
, polished
stone tools Stone tools have been used throughout human history but are most closely associated with prehistoric cultures and in particular those of the Stone Age. Stone tools may be made of either ground stone or knapped stone, the latter fashioned by a c ...
, and
terracotta Terracotta, also known as terra cotta or terra-cotta (; ; ), is a clay-based non-vitreous ceramic OED, "Terracotta""Terracotta" MFA Boston, "Cameo" database fired at relatively low temperatures. It is therefore a term used for earthenware obj ...
figurines. These settlements laid the foundation for later urbanization and state formation in regions such as
Bono Manso Manso or Maaso, often referred to as Bono-Manso in historical contexts, was an urban centre of significant religious, political, and economic influence. It was situated on the northern Forest–savanna mosaic, forest savanna zone of Akan realm ...
and
Begho Begho, also known historically as Nsoko or Insoco, was a city located in the Bono state of Ghana, located just south of its successor community, Hani. Begho was established as a trading entrepôt and cosmopolitan centre linking merchants from ac ...
. By the 5th century CE, forest and forest-fringe communities in areas like
Amowi Amowi, also known as Amoyu, is a village in Ashanti Region, Ghana. The population is approximately 500. The nearest city is Kumasi Kumasi is a city and the capital of the Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly and the Ashanti Region of Ghana. It is ...
,
Bono Manso Manso or Maaso, often referred to as Bono-Manso in historical contexts, was an urban centre of significant religious, political, and economic influence. It was situated on the northern Forest–savanna mosaic, forest savanna zone of Akan realm ...
, and
Wenchi Wenchi is a town and the capital of Wenchi Municipal of the Bono Region in the middle-belt of Ghana. Wenchi is located at 7.73333 atitude in decimal degrees -2.1 ongitude in decimal degreesat an average elevation/altitude of 304 meters. ...
had developed long-term settlements supported by
agriculture Agriculture encompasses crop and livestock production, aquaculture, and forestry for food and non-food products. Agriculture was a key factor in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created ...
, trade, and
iron production Iron is a chemical element; it has symbol Fe () and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table. It is, by mass, the most common element on Earth, forming much of Earth's oute ...
. Oral traditions from groups such as the
Bono Paul David Hewson (born 10 May 1960), known by the nickname Bono ( ), is an Irish singer-songwriter and activist. He is a founding member, the lead vocalist, and primary lyricist of the rock band U2. Bono is known for his impassioned voca ...
recount emergence from sacred caves like
Amowi Amowi, also known as Amoyu, is a village in Ashanti Region, Ghana. The population is approximately 500. The nearest city is Kumasi Kumasi is a city and the capital of the Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly and the Ashanti Region of Ghana. It is ...
and the founding of early towns by ancestral leaders. Archaeological investigations at Asantemanso and Adansemanso have revealed continuous forest settlement from at least the 9th century CE. Large quantities of locally produced ceramics and evidence of
ironworking Ferrous metallurgy is the metallurgy of iron and its alloys. The earliest surviving prehistoric iron artifacts, from the 4th millennium BC in Egypt, were made from meteoritic iron-nickel. It is not known when or where the smelting of iron from ...
indicate these were sizable towns supported by an agricultural base. The material record contradicts earlier assumptions that permanent settlements in the forest only emerged after 1500, showing instead that urbanization predated European contact by several centuries. Archaeological research at sites such as Kranka Dada has confirmed continuous occupation and interaction with broader regional exchange networks. The
Bono Manso Manso or Maaso, often referred to as Bono-Manso in historical contexts, was an urban centre of significant religious, political, and economic influence. It was situated on the northern Forest–savanna mosaic, forest savanna zone of Akan realm ...
region, in particular, was linked to the Niger trade routes by the 14th century and developed into a major node of commerce and spiritual life.


Bonoman and the Rise of Early Akan States

The emergence of
Bonoman Bono State (also known as Bonoman) was the first centralized Akan state, founded by the Bono people in what is now central Ghana. Bonoman is generally considered a cultural, political ancestor and origin to Akan subgroups that migrated southwar ...
, with
Bono Manso Manso or Maaso, often referred to as Bono-Manso in historical contexts, was an urban centre of significant religious, political, and economic influence. It was situated on the northern Forest–savanna mosaic, forest savanna zone of Akan realm ...
as its political center, marks one of the earliest identifiable phases in the development of centralized Akan states. Located in the Tain basin within the forest-savanna transition zone,
Bono Manso Manso or Maaso, often referred to as Bono-Manso in historical contexts, was an urban centre of significant religious, political, and economic influence. It was situated on the northern Forest–savanna mosaic, forest savanna zone of Akan realm ...
likely began consolidating into a polity between the 11th and 13th centuries. Oral traditions describe the Bono's emergence from a hole in the earth, led by the first king, Asaman, who founded
Bono Manso Manso or Maaso, often referred to as Bono-Manso in historical contexts, was an urban centre of significant religious, political, and economic influence. It was situated on the northern Forest–savanna mosaic, forest savanna zone of Akan realm ...
. At its height,
Bono Manso Manso or Maaso, often referred to as Bono-Manso in historical contexts, was an urban centre of significant religious, political, and economic influence. It was situated on the northern Forest–savanna mosaic, forest savanna zone of Akan realm ...
was recognized as the seat of the "Dua-duakwa hene mu hene" (king of many kings), a title that emphasized its symbolic and political preeminence among early Akan communities. According to historians,
Bono Manso Manso or Maaso, often referred to as Bono-Manso in historical contexts, was an urban centre of significant religious, political, and economic influence. It was situated on the northern Forest–savanna mosaic, forest savanna zone of Akan realm ...
emerged as an early urban center with long-distance trade networks and specialized production, developing independently of
Islamic Islam is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran, and the teachings of Muhammad. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number Islam by country, 2 billion worldwide and are the world ...
or
European European, or Europeans, may refer to: In general * ''European'', an adjective referring to something of, from, or related to Europe ** Ethnic groups in Europe ** Demographics of Europe ** European cuisine, the cuisines of Europe and other West ...
political models; archaeological and oral sources confirm that its political institutions were shaped by local traditions and sacred geography prior to external contact. Sites such as
Bono Manso Manso or Maaso, often referred to as Bono-Manso in historical contexts, was an urban centre of significant religious, political, and economic influence. It was situated on the northern Forest–savanna mosaic, forest savanna zone of Akan realm ...
and
Begho Begho, also known historically as Nsoko or Insoco, was a city located in the Bono state of Ghana, located just south of its successor community, Hani. Begho was established as a trading entrepôt and cosmopolitan centre linking merchants from ac ...
reveal extensive material culture associated with
ironworking Ferrous metallurgy is the metallurgy of iron and its alloys. The earliest surviving prehistoric iron artifacts, from the 4th millennium BC in Egypt, were made from meteoritic iron-nickel. It is not known when or where the smelting of iron from ...
, domestic space, and pottery traditions, suggesting communities with occupational diversity and long-term settlement. At
Begho Begho, also known historically as Nsoko or Insoco, was a city located in the Bono state of Ghana, located just south of its successor community, Hani. Begho was established as a trading entrepôt and cosmopolitan centre linking merchants from ac ...
, quarters were organized by function and community: Brong elites, Mande-speaking Muslim merchants, and craftspeople, including brassworkers at Dwinfuor. Finds include spindle whorls, dye pits, terracotta weights, and
glass beads Glass bead making has long traditions, with the oldest known beads dating over 3,000 years. People have been making beads out of glass since at least Ancient Roman times. Perhaps the earliest glass-like beads were Egyptian faience beads, a for ...
, reflecting textile production and participation in distant trade circuits.
Iron Iron is a chemical element; it has symbol Fe () and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table. It is, by mass, the most common element on Earth, forming much of Earth's o ...
was smelted at Dapaa, roughly four kilometers northwest. Its position allowed it to facilitate long-distance trade in centers such as Jenne, Kong, and
Bobo-Dioulasso Bobo-Dioulasso ( , ) is a city in Burkina Faso with a population of 1,129,000 (); it is the second-largest city in the country, after Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso's capital. The name means "home of the Bobo- Dioula". The local Bobo-speaking pop ...
. These patterns reflect a decentralized model of governance in which local rulers maintained autonomy within a broader confederation, a structure that would influence later Akan formations.
Gold Gold is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol Au (from Latin ) and atomic number 79. In its pure form, it is a brightness, bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile metal. Chemically, gold is a transition metal ...
formed the backbone of Bono's economy, fueling internal authority and external commerce. From the 13th century onward, connections with trans-Saharan caravans intensified, as Dyula merchants exchanged
brassware Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, in proportions which can be varied to achieve different colours and mechanical, electrical, acoustic and chemical properties, but copper typically has the larger proportion, generally copper and zinc. I ...
,
cowries Cowrie or cowry () is the common name for a group of small to large sea snails in the family Cypraeidae. Cowrie shells have held cultural, economic, and ornamental significance in various cultures. The cowrie was the shell most widely used wo ...
,
textiles Textile is an Hyponymy and hypernymy, umbrella term that includes various Fiber, fiber-based materials, including fibers, yarns, Staple (textiles)#Filament fiber, filaments, Thread (yarn), threads, and different types of #Fabric, fabric. ...
, and
horses The horse (''Equus ferus caballus'') is a domesticated, one-toed, hoofed mammal. It belongs to the taxonomic family Equidae and is one of two extant subspecies of ''Equus ferus''. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 milli ...
for
gold Gold is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol Au (from Latin ) and atomic number 79. In its pure form, it is a brightness, bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile metal. Chemically, gold is a transition metal ...
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kola unit was the big kola int eh Kola may refer to: People * Koła, a Polish noble family * Kola (name), people with the given name/surname Kola * Kola (singer), Ukrainian singer, songwriter and performer of her own songs * Kola people, Gabonese p ...
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ivory Ivory is a hard, white material from the tusks (traditionally from elephants) and Tooth, teeth of animals, that consists mainly of dentine, one of the physical structures of teeth and tusks. The chemical structure of the teeth and tusks of mamm ...
.
Begho Begho, also known historically as Nsoko or Insoco, was a city located in the Bono state of Ghana, located just south of its successor community, Hani. Begho was established as a trading entrepôt and cosmopolitan centre linking merchants from ac ...
emerged as a cosmopolitan center in this network, yielding material traces such as copper and brass workshops, dyewells, imported
Chinese porcelain Chinese ceramics are one of the most significant forms of Chinese art and ceramics globally. They range from construction materials such as bricks and tiles, to hand-built pottery vessels fired in bonfires or kilns, to the sophisticated Chinese ...
, and Islamic gold weights. By the 14th century, it rivaled
Bono Manso Manso or Maaso, often referred to as Bono-Manso in historical contexts, was an urban centre of significant religious, political, and economic influence. It was situated on the northern Forest–savanna mosaic, forest savanna zone of Akan realm ...
in scale and volume of trade, with a population estimated between 7,000 and 10,000—one of the largest settlements of its time in precolonial
Ghana Ghana, officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It is situated along the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, and shares borders with Côte d’Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, and Togo to t ...
. The Akan goldfields encompassing Bono and its associated centers would later be counted among the three principal gold-producing regions in
West Africa West Africa, also known as Western Africa, is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations geoscheme for Africa#Western Africa, United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Gha ...
, alongside
Bambuk Bambouk (sometimes Bambuk or Bambuhu) is a traditional name for the territory in eastern Senegal and western Mali, encompassing the Bambouk Mountains on its eastern edge, the valley of the Faleme River and the hilly country to the east of the r ...
and
Bure Bure may refer to: Places Belgium * Bure, Wallonia, Belgium, a small village in the Tellin municipality * Battle of Bure, a World War II battle during the Battle of the Bulge Eritrea and Ethiopia * Bure (disputed zone), on the border between Eri ...
.


Adansi and the Evolution of Akan Statehood

Excavations at Adansemanso, a former capital of the Adanse state, have revealed it as one of the largest ancient settlements in the central forest zone of
Ghana Ghana, officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It is situated along the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, and shares borders with Côte d’Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, and Togo to t ...
, with evidence of continuous occupation from as early as the 5th century CE according to oral and archaeological sources, and from the 9th century CE based on radiocarbon dating. The site includes remains of domestic structures, iron-smelting debris, and two brass gold weights, indicating its early involvement in gold economies and
iron production Iron is a chemical element; it has symbol Fe () and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table. It is, by mass, the most common element on Earth, forming much of Earth's oute ...
. The scarcity of foreign imports and tobacco pipes suggests it was largely abandoned before sustained European contact. The
Adansi Adanse or Adansi is one of the earliest Akan states, located in the southern part of present-day Ashanti Region, Ghana. Widely regarded in oral tradition as a spiritual and ancestral homeland of many Akan polities, Adansi was an early center of ...
state emerged in the forest zone south of
Bono Paul David Hewson (born 10 May 1960), known by the nickname Bono ( ), is an Irish singer-songwriter and activist. He is a founding member, the lead vocalist, and primary lyricist of the rock band U2. Bono is known for his impassioned voca ...
and is remembered in Akan cosmogony as the place “where God began creation”. Oral traditions and sacred geography place the origins of several
Akan clans Akan may refer to: People and languages *Akan people, an ethnic group in Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire *Akan languages, a language group within the wider Central Tano languages *Kwa languages, a language group which includes Akan *Central Tano language ...
at Asantemanso and Adansemanso, which are supported by archaeological findings of settlement continuity dating back to 700
BCE Common Era (CE) and Before the Common Era (BCE) are year notations for the Gregorian calendar (and its predecessor, the Julian calendar), the world's most widely used calendar era. Common Era and Before the Common Era are alternatives to the o ...
. These sites formed the nucleus of early state formation, and Adansi was considered the first among five foundational Akan polities—alongside
Akyem The Akyem Kingdoms (also known as Greater Akyem, Akim, Great Akim, or Akan Grande) were prominent Akan people, Akan kingdoms in precolonial Ghana, consisting of the three related states of Akyem Abuakwa, Akyem Kotoku, and Akyem Bosome. Located in ...
,
Assin The Assin (also known as Asin and Asen) are an ethnic group of the Akan people and Guan (Etsii) people who live in Ghana. The Assin people live predominantly in the Central Region of Ghana. The capital of the Assin district is Assin Foso Ass ...
,
Denkyira Denkyira (also known as Denkira, Denchira, Inguira, or Dinkira) was a powerful Akan kingdom that rose to prominence in precolonial Ghana, dominating large parts of the forest zone in the south-central Gold Coast. Centered around its capital at ...
, and
Asante Asante may refer to: *Asante people, an ethnic group in Ghana *Asante Empire *Asante (name) *Asante dialect, a dialect of the Akan languages * Asante Kotoko S.C., a Ghanaian professional association football club *Asante (album), 1974 jazz album b ...
—known collectively as the Akanman Piesie Anum. By the 13th century,
Adanse Adanse or Adansi is one of the earliest Akan states, located in the southern part of present-day Ashanti Region, Ghana. Widely regarded in oral tradition as a spiritual and ancestral homeland of many Akan polities, Adansi was an early center of ...
was integrated into Trans-Saharan trade networks via Wangara intermediaries, exchanging gold for Saharan goods. European sources praised the purity of Adansi gold, known as "Accany sika", which was extracted from areas like
Akrokerri Akrokerri is a town and a suburb of Obuasi in the Ashanti Region of Ghana Ghana, officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It is situated along the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, and shares border ...
and
Dompoase Dompoase, a suburb of Kumasi, and located in the Adansi North District in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. The place is known for Dompoase Senior High School. It is a town of 30,000 people in Ghana. Kumasi is the capital of the region, considered th ...
under ritual supervision invoking the deity Bona. Statecraft was tied to control over goldfields, tribute, and military organization; towns like Edubiase and Bodwesanwo produced weapons that supported Adansi's early regional influence.


Southern and Coastal Frontiers

As centralized states like
Bonoman Bono State (also known as Bonoman) was the first centralized Akan state, founded by the Bono people in what is now central Ghana. Bonoman is generally considered a cultural, political ancestor and origin to Akan subgroups that migrated southwar ...
and
Adansi Adanse or Adansi is one of the earliest Akan states, located in the southern part of present-day Ashanti Region, Ghana. Widely regarded in oral tradition as a spiritual and ancestral homeland of many Akan polities, Adansi was an early center of ...
developed in the forest-savanna mosaic zone, groups of Akan-speaking peoples began dispersing southward into the forest and coastal belts of southern
Ghana Ghana, officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It is situated along the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, and shares borders with Côte d’Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, and Togo to t ...
. This movement was driven by the search for fertile land, access to gold resources, and emerging political dynamics in the interior. A southtward migration led to the formation of the Fante, whose oral traditions trace their origins to inland centers such as Bono-Takyiman and
Adansi Adanse or Adansi is one of the earliest Akan states, located in the southern part of present-day Ashanti Region, Ghana. Widely regarded in oral tradition as a spiritual and ancestral homeland of many Akan polities, Adansi was an early center of ...
. After settling near
Mankessim Mankessim is a town in the Central Region of Ghana, West Africa. It is approximately 75 km west of Accra, on the main road to Sekondi-Takoradi. It is the traditional headquarters of the Fante ethnic group of Ghana. Mankessim's history is linked ...
, the Fante established a confederation grounded in clan unity and sacred geography, as preserved in the Nananom Pow narrative. By the 15th century—before Portuguese contact in 1471—Akan communities including the Fante,
Asebu Asebu (also known as Sabou) is a town and a former Fante chiefdom in the Abura/Asebu/Kwamankese District, Central Region, Ghana. In the history of the Gold Coast, Asebu is notable for being the first Fante chiefdom to sign a treaty with the D ...
,
Edina EDINA is a centre for digital expertise, based at the University of Edinburgh as a division of the Information Services Group. Services EDINA front and back ends, front-end services (those accessed directly by the user) are available free at ...
,
Eguafo Eguafo was a kingdom in what is now southern Ghana that existed from at least the 15th century up until its incorporation into the Fante Confederacy and then the Gold Coast (British Colony) in the 19th century. Shama and Elmina Elmina ( ...
, Nzima, and
Ahanta The Ahanta/Ayinda are Akan people who live to the north and east of the Nzema. The Ahanta land has been historically known as one of the richest areas on the coast of what is now Ghana. The Ahanta land spans from Beposo to Ankobra in what is no ...
were firmly established along the coast. These groups maintained cultural, political, and genealogical ties to their interior origins while developing independent identities suited to coastal trade, diplomacy, and shifting regional alliances. As these migrations accelerated, new settlements took root in the forest zone, giving rise to gold-producing states such as
Wassa The Wasa (or Wassa) is an Akan ethnic group predominantly inhabiting the Western Region of Ghana Ghana, officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It is situated along the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to ...
, Aowin (Anyi or Agni), and
Tarkwa Tarkwa is a town and is the capital of Tarkwa-Nsuaem Municipal District, Tarkwa-Nsuaem Municipal district, a district in the Western Region, Ghana, Western Region southwest of South Ghana. Frequently dubbed as the "Golden City" by its indigenous ...
, which preserved core Akan institutions like matrilineal inheritance and stool-based governance while adapting them to more dispersed and ecologically varied settings. According to oral traditions, the Aowin state of the Aowin (Agni) people grew to become the dominant power in the southwestern forest, controlling gold sources and trade routes to Apollonia and
Begho Begho, also known historically as Nsoko or Insoco, was a city located in the Bono state of Ghana, located just south of its successor community, Hani. Begho was established as a trading entrepôt and cosmopolitan centre linking merchants from ac ...
. Their territory became a refuge for groups displaced by wars and territorial conflicts. As Aowin declined, incoming migrants from
Bono Paul David Hewson (born 10 May 1960), known by the nickname Bono ( ), is an Irish singer-songwriter and activist. He is a founding member, the lead vocalist, and primary lyricist of the rock band U2. Bono is known for his impassioned voca ...
,
Adansi Adanse or Adansi is one of the earliest Akan states, located in the southern part of present-day Ashanti Region, Ghana. Widely regarded in oral tradition as a spiritual and ancestral homeland of many Akan polities, Adansi was an early center of ...
, and
Denkyira Denkyira (also known as Denkira, Denchira, Inguira, or Dinkira) was a powerful Akan kingdom that rose to prominence in precolonial Ghana, dominating large parts of the forest zone in the south-central Gold Coast. Centered around its capital at ...
established three autonomous but related states: Sefwi Wiawso,
Sefwi Bekwai Sefwi or Sehwi may refer to: * Sefwi people, an ethnic group of Ghana * Sehwi language, their language * Kingdom of Sefwi The Kingdom of Sefwi was a historical Akan state located in the western forest zone of what is now Ghana. It emerged in the ...
, and
Sefwi Anhwiaso Sefwi or Sehwi may refer to: * Sefwi people, an ethnic group of Ghana * Sehwi language, their language * Kingdom of Sefwi The Kingdom of Sefwi was a historical Akan state located in the western forest zone of what is now Ghana. It emerged in the ...
, which absorbed cultural influences from neighboring Akan polities.


The Kingdoms of Accany: Akan Polities in Early European Trade Records

By the late 15th century, Portuguese explorers encountered Akan-speaking merchants controlling gold routes from the forest interior to the coast. Duarte Pacheco Pereira (1505–1508) listed inland traders—including the Haccanys, Boroes, Bremus, Cacres, Andese, and Souzos—who brought gold from distant lands to the
coast A coast (coastline, shoreline, seashore) is the land next to the sea or the line that forms the boundary between the land and the ocean or a lake. Coasts are influenced by the topography of the surrounding landscape and by aquatic erosion, su ...
. These names are now understood as early references to Akan groups in the PraOfinBirim basin. European records used terms like ''Accany'' or ''Arcania'' to describe this inland
gold Gold is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol Au (from Latin ) and atomic number 79. In its pure form, it is a brightness, bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile metal. Chemically, gold is a transition metal ...
- producing region, which included
Adansi Adanse or Adansi is one of the earliest Akan states, located in the southern part of present-day Ashanti Region, Ghana. Widely regarded in oral tradition as a spiritual and ancestral homeland of many Akan polities, Adansi was an early center of ...
,
Asante Asante may refer to: *Asante people, an ethnic group in Ghana *Asante Empire *Asante (name) *Asante dialect, a dialect of the Akan languages * Asante Kotoko S.C., a Ghanaian professional association football club *Asante (album), 1974 jazz album b ...
,
Akyem The Akyem Kingdoms (also known as Greater Akyem, Akim, Great Akim, or Akan Grande) were prominent Akan people, Akan kingdoms in precolonial Ghana, consisting of the three related states of Akyem Abuakwa, Akyem Kotoku, and Akyem Bosome. Located in ...
,
Assin The Assin (also known as Asin and Asen) are an ethnic group of the Akan people and Guan (Etsii) people who live in Ghana. The Assin people live predominantly in the Central Region of Ghana. The capital of the Assin district is Assin Foso Ass ...
, and
Denkyira Denkyira (also known as Denkira, Denchira, Inguira, or Dinkira) was a powerful Akan kingdom that rose to prominence in precolonial Ghana, dominating large parts of the forest zone in the south-central Gold Coast. Centered around its capital at ...
. A 1629 Dutch map marked three inland zones as “Akani,” confirming the area's economic centrality. Accanist gold was known for its purity, often referred to as “Akan sika.”
Portuguese forts This article will list all fortifications that were built, partially built, or ordered to be built by the Portuguese people, Portuguese throughout the globe. All forts in this list are outside the modern territory of Portugal, and were built fo ...
like
São Jorge da Mina Elmina Castle was erected by the Portuguese in 1482 as Castelo de São Jorge da Mina (''St. George of the Mine Castle''), also known as ''Castelo da Mina'' or simply ''Mina'' (or '' Feitoria da Mina''), in present-day Elmina, Ghana, formerly th ...
were built to secure this trade, but inland Akan polities retained control over production and supply. By the mid-17th century, European firearms—especially flintlocks—had spread inland, reshaping warfare and state expansion. From the early 17th century onward, European rivals—including the
Dutch Dutch or Nederlands commonly refers to: * Something of, from, or related to the Netherlands ** Dutch people as an ethnic group () ** Dutch nationality law, history and regulations of Dutch citizenship () ** Dutch language () * In specific terms, i ...
,
British British may refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies. * British national identity, the characteristics of British people and culture ...
,
Danes Danes (, ), or Danish people, are an ethnic group and nationality native to Denmark and a modern nation identified with the country of Denmark. This connection may be ancestral, legal, historical, or cultural. History Early history Denmark ...
, and
Brandenburgers The Brandenburgers () were members of Nazi Germany's Wehrmacht special forces unit during World War II. Originally, the unit was formed by and operated as an extension of the military's intelligence and counter-espionage organ, the ''Abwehr''. ...
—intensified their presence along the coast, competing for access to the interior Akan goldfields. In return, they supplied firearms,
gunpowder Gunpowder, also commonly known as black powder to distinguish it from modern smokeless powder, is the earliest known chemical explosive. It consists of a mixture of sulfur, charcoal (which is mostly carbon), and potassium nitrate, potassium ni ...
, and
textiles Textile is an Hyponymy and hypernymy, umbrella term that includes various Fiber, fiber-based materials, including fibers, yarns, Staple (textiles)#Filament fiber, filaments, Thread (yarn), threads, and different types of #Fabric, fabric. ...
, fueling military rivalries among inland states.
Muskets A musket is a muzzle-loaded long gun that appeared as a smoothbore weapon in the early 16th century, at first as a heavier variant of the arquebus, capable of penetrating plate armour. By the mid-16th century, this type of musket gradually d ...
quickly became integral to state-building, and armed expansionism grew central to political survival across the region.


Fragmentation and Rise of Regional Powers

By the early 16th century, the inland Akan polity of
Adansi Adanse or Adansi is one of the earliest Akan states, located in the southern part of present-day Ashanti Region, Ghana. Widely regarded in oral tradition as a spiritual and ancestral homeland of many Akan polities, Adansi was an early center of ...
—once a dominant power in the forest zone—was facing growing internal and external pressures. Portuguese records from 1502 mention a war between the Akan and Atis (Etsii), and by 1548 they noted a “civil war among the Akans,” indicating early political fragmentation. Over the following century, European demand for gold and the introduction of firearms intensified inter-state rivalry. Akan polities began acquiring muskets through coastal trade and using enslaved captives and gold as currency for arms. By the mid-17th century, states such as
Akwamu The Akwamu Empire was a powerful Akan state that rose to prominence in the 17th century in what is now southeastern Ghana. According to oral tradition, the Akwamu traced their origins to the Twifo-Heman area, but the earliest historical records p ...
,
Denkyira Denkyira (also known as Denkira, Denchira, Inguira, or Dinkira) was a powerful Akan kingdom that rose to prominence in precolonial Ghana, dominating large parts of the forest zone in the south-central Gold Coast. Centered around its capital at ...
,
Akyem The Akyem Kingdoms (also known as Greater Akyem, Akim, Great Akim, or Akan Grande) were prominent Akan people, Akan kingdoms in precolonial Ghana, consisting of the three related states of Akyem Abuakwa, Akyem Kotoku, and Akyem Bosome. Located in ...
, and
Assin The Assin (also known as Asin and Asen) are an ethnic group of the Akan people and Guan (Etsii) people who live in Ghana. The Assin people live predominantly in the Central Region of Ghana. The capital of the Assin district is Assin Foso Ass ...
—many of which traced their origins to Adansi—had emerged as autonomous militarized powers. These polities challenged Adansi's dominance by expanding territory, controlling trade routes, and asserting political independence. The resulting instability reshaped the Akani Confederation (also referred to as Accany, Akani, or Arcania in European records), which had previously linked forest Akan states through trade and shared institutions. European sources from this period began distinguishing Great Accany with
Akyem The Akyem Kingdoms (also known as Greater Akyem, Akim, Great Akim, or Akan Grande) were prominent Akan people, Akan kingdoms in precolonial Ghana, consisting of the three related states of Akyem Abuakwa, Akyem Kotoku, and Akyem Bosome. Located in ...
, and Little Accany with the
Assin The Assin (also known as Asin and Asen) are an ethnic group of the Akan people and Guan (Etsii) people who live in Ghana. The Assin people live predominantly in the Central Region of Ghana. The capital of the Assin district is Assin Foso Ass ...
states situated south of the goldfields. As warfare escalated and tribute networks collapsed, the cohesion of the Akani bloc eroded. By the late 17th century, European observers noted the rise of
Denkyira Denkyira (also known as Denkira, Denchira, Inguira, or Dinkira) was a powerful Akan kingdom that rose to prominence in precolonial Ghana, dominating large parts of the forest zone in the south-central Gold Coast. Centered around its capital at ...
and
Akwamu The Akwamu Empire was a powerful Akan state that rose to prominence in the 17th century in what is now southeastern Ghana. According to oral tradition, the Akwamu traced their origins to the Twifo-Heman area, but the earliest historical records p ...
as dominant forces, using firearms and captives to consolidate power. As
Akwamu The Akwamu Empire was a powerful Akan state that rose to prominence in the 17th century in what is now southeastern Ghana. According to oral tradition, the Akwamu traced their origins to the Twifo-Heman area, but the earliest historical records p ...
rose as a dominant Akan power, expanding eastward under Ansa Sasraku and capturing
Accra Accra (; or ''Gaga''; ; Ewe: Gɛ; ) is the capital and largest city of Ghana, located on the southern coast at the Gulf of Guinea, which is part of the Atlantic Ocean. As of 2021 census, the Accra Metropolitan District, , had a population of ...
by 1681, turning it into a tributary while collecting rents from European forts.
Denkyira Denkyira (also known as Denkira, Denchira, Inguira, or Dinkira) was a powerful Akan kingdom that rose to prominence in precolonial Ghana, dominating large parts of the forest zone in the south-central Gold Coast. Centered around its capital at ...
, built on gold wealth and military conscription, imposed harsh demands on its tributaries under
Ntim Gyakari Ntim Gyakari (died in1701) was the last fully independent ruler of Denkyira, a state in the boundaries of the modern nation of Ghana. He was the brother of Owusu Akoto who later took the family to the Ebrosa Kingdom as exile, which would eventually ...
, provoking widespread unrest. Its overreach and imperial dominance ultimately sparked the rise of
Osei Tutu Osei Kofi Tutu I ( – ) was one of the founders of the Ashanti Empire, assisted by Okomfo Anokye, his chief priest. He led an alliance of Asante states against Denkyira, the regional hegemon, defeating them at the 1701 Battle of Feyiase. H ...
and the Kwaman coalition that would challenge and overthrow Denkyira’s hegemony.


The Rise of the Asante Empire, The Western Frontier and Gyaman

By the late 17th century, the rise of
Asante Asante may refer to: *Asante people, an ethnic group in Ghana *Asante Empire *Asante (name) *Asante dialect, a dialect of the Akan languages * Asante Kotoko S.C., a Ghanaian professional association football club *Asante (album), 1974 jazz album b ...
under
Osei Tutu Osei Kofi Tutu I ( – ) was one of the founders of the Ashanti Empire, assisted by Okomfo Anokye, his chief priest. He led an alliance of Asante states against Denkyira, the regional hegemon, defeating them at the 1701 Battle of Feyiase. H ...
and Komfo Anokye reshaped the forest region. Initially a minor polity, the Kwaman coaliton expanded under Obiri Yeboah and later
Osei Tutu Osei Kofi Tutu I ( – ) was one of the founders of the Ashanti Empire, assisted by Okomfo Anokye, his chief priest. He led an alliance of Asante states against Denkyira, the regional hegemon, defeating them at the 1701 Battle of Feyiase. H ...
, who returned from exile at
Akwamu The Akwamu Empire was a powerful Akan state that rose to prominence in the 17th century in what is now southeastern Ghana. According to oral tradition, the Akwamu traced their origins to the Twifo-Heman area, but the earliest historical records p ...
with political experience. With
Anokye Okomfo Anokye (c.1655 – c.1717?/c.1719) was the first priest ( Okomfo) of the Ashanti Empire. Anokye is known for his participation in the expansion of the empire. He was also the codifier of the constitution and laws of the Ashanti Empire. B ...
, he unified clans and consecrated the
Golden Stool The Golden Stool ( Ashanti-; full title, Sika Dwa Kofi "the Golden Stool born on a Friday") is the royal and divine throne of kings of the Asante people and the ultimate symbol of power in Asante. According to legend, Okomfo Anokye, High Priest ...
, symbolizing Asante nationhood. In 1699, Asante challenged
Denkyira Denkyira (also known as Denkira, Denchira, Inguira, or Dinkira) was a powerful Akan kingdom that rose to prominence in precolonial Ghana, dominating large parts of the forest zone in the south-central Gold Coast. Centered around its capital at ...
, whose tributaries—including
Assin The Assin (also known as Asin and Asen) are an ethnic group of the Akan people and Guan (Etsii) people who live in Ghana. The Assin people live predominantly in the Central Region of Ghana. The capital of the Assin district is Assin Foso Ass ...
and
Twifo Twifo was an early Akan people, Akan state established during the initial Akan settlement of the Adansi forest. As the Akan expanded southward, the Twifo emerged as one of the key inland gold-producing polities. By the early 16th century, Eur ...
—joined the revolt. Denkyira's firearm supply was cut off, and in 1701 it was defeated at the
Battle of Feyiase The Battle of Feyiase was the decisive battle in the struggle that led to the Ashanti Empire replacing Denkyira as the dominant power among the Twi-speaking Akan peoples. During the battle, the Denkyira army deployed 2 or 3 Dutch cannons while t ...
. Asante then centralized power and expanded rapidly, leveraging firearms and alliances with coastal merchants. By 1709, it was a dominant force inland.As Asante power extended southwestward, it came into direct conflict with the Aowin (Agni) state, which had previously dominated the region between the Tano and Bia. In 1715, Asante forces under General Amankwatia—aided by their Wiawso allies—launched a major campaign against Aowin, resulting in the loss of Aowin's western territories and their eventual reduction to tributary status. This marked a major shift in regional power dynamics, as Aowin's former refuge areas were gradually absorbed into the expanding Asante sphere. The destruction of
Bono Manso Manso or Maaso, often referred to as Bono-Manso in historical contexts, was an urban centre of significant religious, political, and economic influence. It was situated on the northern Forest–savanna mosaic, forest savanna zone of Akan realm ...
in the 1722–1723 war marked a turning point in the western forest. Internal succession disputes and the unpopular rule of Ameyaw Kwakye had already weakened Bono's authority, and Asante forces quickly overran the town, capturing its rulers and artisans, and relocating regalia and treasury assets to Kumase. Many
Bono Paul David Hewson (born 10 May 1960), known by the nickname Bono ( ), is an Irish singer-songwriter and activist. He is a founding member, the lead vocalist, and primary lyricist of the rock band U2. Bono is known for his impassioned voca ...
fled to
Techiman Techiman (Akan language, Akan: ''Takyiman'') is a city and the capital of the Techiman Municipal District, Techiman Metropolitan District and the Bono East Region of Ghana. The city is located about from Sunyani and about away from Kumasi. I ...
, while others migrated westward regrouping in nearby settlements
Gyaman Gyaman (also spelled Gyaaman or Jamang, and later known as Jaman) was a prominent precolonial Akan people, Akan kingdom that flourished in parts of present-day Ghana and Ivory Coast. Established by the Bono people from the Abusua, Aduana clan, G ...
, Abease, and the
Banda Banda may refer to: People * Banda (surname) * Banda Prakash (born 1954), Indian politician * Banda Kanakalingeshwara Rao (1907–1968), Indian actor * Banda Karthika Reddy (born 1977), Indian politician *Banda Singh Bahadur (1670–1716), Sikh ...
area. This displacement helped form the Gyaman state, whose rulers were remembered in oral tradition as “sons of Bono kings.” As Bono refugees and military auxiliaries moved across the frontier, they brought Akan political institutions with them. This contributed to the development of
Gyaman Gyaman (also spelled Gyaaman or Jamang, and later known as Jaman) was a prominent precolonial Akan people, Akan kingdom that flourished in parts of present-day Ghana and Ivory Coast. Established by the Bono people from the Abusua, Aduana clan, G ...
, and further west, the emergence of the Baoule and other splinter groups seeking refuge from Asante expansion.


Akan Peoples in the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade

Many people across the
Americas The Americas, sometimes collectively called America, are a landmass comprising the totality of North America and South America.''Webster's New World College Dictionary'', 2010 by Wiley Publishing, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio. When viewed as a sing ...
trace their ancestry to Akan-speaking populations due to the
trans-Atlantic slave trade The Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade involved the transportation by slave traders of enslaved African people to the Americas. European slave ships regularly used the triangular trade route and its Middle Passage. Europeans est ...
. Between the 17th and 19th centuries, a significant proportion of
enslaved Africans Slavery has historically been widespread in Africa. Systems of servitude and slavery were once commonplace in parts of Africa, as they were in much of the rest of the Ancient history, ancient and Post-classical history, medieval world. When t ...
shipped from the Gold Coast—estimated at 10% of all embarkations from
West Africa West Africa, also known as Western Africa, is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations geoscheme for Africa#Western Africa, United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Gha ...
—were of Akan origin. Although gold remained central to the Akan economy, the intensification of internal conflicts—especially among the Fante and Ashanti during the 18th century—led to the capture and external sale of war captives, many of whom were exported through coastal ports such as
Anomabo Anomabu, also spelled Anomabo and formerly as Annamaboe, is a town on the coast of the Mfantsiman Municipal District of the Central Region of South Ghana. Anomabu has a settlement population of 14,389 people. Anomabu is located 12 km east ...
and
Cape Coast Cape Coast is a city and the capital of the Cape Coast Metropolitan Assembly, Cape Coast Metropolitan District and the Central Region (Ghana), Central Region of Ghana, Ghana. It is located about from Sekondi-Takoradi and approximately from Ac ...
. Akan captives, often labeled as “
Coromantee Coromantee, Coromantins, Coromanti or Kormantine (derived from the name of the Ghanaian slave fort Fort Amsterdam, Ghana, Fort Kormantine in the Ghanaian town of Kormantse, Central Ghana) is an English-language term for Atlantic slave trade, en ...
” in
British colonies A Crown colony or royal colony was a colony governed by England, and then Great Britain or the United Kingdom within the English and later British Empire. There was usually a governor to represent the Crown, appointed by the British monarch on ...
, gained a reputation for resistance and military discipline. Many were former soldiers from warring states like Fante,
Akwamu The Akwamu Empire was a powerful Akan state that rose to prominence in the 17th century in what is now southeastern Ghana. According to oral tradition, the Akwamu traced their origins to the Twifo-Heman area, but the earliest historical records p ...
or Ashanti, and their skills were transferred to plantation and
maroon Maroon ( , ) is a brownish crimson color that takes its name from the French word , meaning chestnut. ''Marron'' is also one of the French translations for "brown". Terms describing interchangeable shades, with overlapping RGB ranges, inc ...
communities. They played central roles in uprisings across the
Americas The Americas, sometimes collectively called America, are a landmass comprising the totality of North America and South America.''Webster's New World College Dictionary'', 2010 by Wiley Publishing, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio. When viewed as a sing ...
, including the 1733
Akwamu The Akwamu Empire was a powerful Akan state that rose to prominence in the 17th century in what is now southeastern Ghana. According to oral tradition, the Akwamu traced their origins to the Twifo-Heman area, but the earliest historical records p ...
- led revolt on St. John, the 1760
Tacky's Rebellion Tacky's Revolt (also known as Tacky's Rebellion and Tacky's War) was a slave rebellion in the British colony of Jamaica which lasted from 7 April 1760 to 1761. Spearheaded by self-emancipated Coromantee people, the rebels were led by a Fante ro ...
in
Jamaica Jamaica is an island country in the Caribbean Sea and the West Indies. At , it is the third-largest island—after Cuba and Hispaniola—of the Greater Antilles and the Caribbean. Jamaica lies about south of Cuba, west of Hispaniola (the is ...
, and the 1763 Berbice uprising in
Guyana Guyana, officially the Co-operative Republic of Guyana, is a country on the northern coast of South America, part of the historic British West Indies. entry "Guyana" Georgetown, Guyana, Georgetown is the capital of Guyana and is also the co ...
led by
Coffy ''Coffy'' is a 1973 American blaxploitation action thriller film written and directed by Jack Hill. The story is about a black female vigilante played by Pam Grier who seeks violent revenge against a heroin dealer responsible for her sister's ...
, a
Coromantee Coromantee, Coromantins, Coromanti or Kormantine (derived from the name of the Ghanaian slave fort Fort Amsterdam, Ghana, Fort Kormantine in the Ghanaian town of Kormantse, Central Ghana) is an English-language term for Atlantic slave trade, en ...
war captain. Some Coromantee, such as Chief Takyi in
Jamaica Jamaica is an island country in the Caribbean Sea and the West Indies. At , it is the third-largest island—after Cuba and Hispaniola—of the Greater Antilles and the Caribbean. Jamaica lies about south of Cuba, west of Hispaniola (the is ...
, were former warlords turned rebels who attempted to recreate Akan-style governance during these revolts. The legacy of Akan resistance survives in the cultural identity of groups such as the
Maroons Maroons are descendants of Africans in the Americas and islands of the Indian Ocean who escaped from slavery, through flight or manumission, and formed their own settlements. They often mixed with Indigenous peoples, eventually evolving into ...
of
Jamaica Jamaica is an island country in the Caribbean Sea and the West Indies. At , it is the third-largest island—after Cuba and Hispaniola—of the Greater Antilles and the Caribbean. Jamaica lies about south of Cuba, west of Hispaniola (the is ...
and
Suriname Suriname, officially the Republic of Suriname, is a country in northern South America, also considered as part of the Caribbean and the West Indies. It is a developing country with a Human Development Index, high level of human development; i ...
, whose languages, rituals, and military structures retain echoes of Akan influence. In several colonies, colonial authorities even feared large concentrations of
Coromantee Coromantee, Coromantins, Coromanti or Kormantine (derived from the name of the Ghanaian slave fort Fort Amsterdam, Ghana, Fort Kormantine in the Ghanaian town of Kormantse, Central Ghana) is an English-language term for Atlantic slave trade, en ...
slaves, associating them with rebellion and political organization.


The Apex of the Asante Empire and the Fante Confederacy

With the fall of major inland polities such as
Denkyira Denkyira (also known as Denkira, Denchira, Inguira, or Dinkira) was a powerful Akan kingdom that rose to prominence in precolonial Ghana, dominating large parts of the forest zone in the south-central Gold Coast. Centered around its capital at ...
,
Bono Manso Manso or Maaso, often referred to as Bono-Manso in historical contexts, was an urban centre of significant religious, political, and economic influence. It was situated on the northern Forest–savanna mosaic, forest savanna zone of Akan realm ...
, and
Akwamu The Akwamu Empire was a powerful Akan state that rose to prominence in the 17th century in what is now southeastern Ghana. According to oral tradition, the Akwamu traced their origins to the Twifo-Heman area, but the earliest historical records p ...
, the
Asante Empire The Asante Empire ( Asante Twi: ), also known as the Ashanti Empire, was an Akan state that lasted from 1701 to 1901, in what is now modern-day Ghana. It expanded from the Ashanti Region to include most of Ghana and also parts of Ivory Coast ...
emerged as the dominant military and commercial power in the forest zone by the early 18th century. From its capital at
Kumasi Kumasi is a city and the capital of the Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly and the Ashanti Region of Ghana. It is the second largest city in the country, with a population of 443,981 as of the 2021 census. Kumasi is located in a rain forest region ...
, Asante controlled trade routes extending from the savanna hinterlands in the north to the Atlantic coast, extracting tribute and asserting influence over formerly independent states. Its political institutions—centered on the
Asantehene The is the title for the monarch of the historical Ashanti Empire as well as the ceremonial ruler of the Ashanti people today. The Ashanti royal house traces its line to the Oyoko (an '' Abusua'', or "clan") Abohyen Dynasty of Nana Twum and ...
, Asanteman Council, and the
Golden Stool The Golden Stool ( Ashanti-; full title, Sika Dwa Kofi "the Golden Stool born on a Friday") is the royal and divine throne of kings of the Asante people and the ultimate symbol of power in Asante. According to legend, Okomfo Anokye, High Priest ...
—enabled integration across a diverse and expanding empire. Asante's control over goldfields and strategic corridors put it in direct competition with coastal states like the
Fante Confederacy The Fante Confederacy (also called a confederation, federation, and other similar terms) powerful alliance of small kingdoms and autonomous city-states in what is now coastal Ghana, united by the Fante people. Centered on the political and spiri ...
. In response to rising Asante power and European trade pressures, the Fante reorganized in the mid-18th century into a defensive coalition of city-states led from
Mankessim Mankessim is a town in the Central Region of Ghana, West Africa. It is approximately 75 km west of Accra, on the main road to Sekondi-Takoradi. It is the traditional headquarters of the Fante ethnic group of Ghana. Mankessim's history is linked ...
. While culturally Akan, the Fante developed a distinct political identity shaped by diplomacy with European powers and rivalry with
Asante Asante may refer to: *Asante people, an ethnic group in Ghana *Asante Empire *Asante (name) *Asante dialect, a dialect of the Akan languages * Asante Kotoko S.C., a Ghanaian professional association football club *Asante (album), 1974 jazz album b ...
. By the 1760s, the
Fante Confederacy The Fante Confederacy (also called a confederation, federation, and other similar terms) powerful alliance of small kingdoms and autonomous city-states in what is now coastal Ghana, united by the Fante people. Centered on the political and spiri ...
had become a key player along the coast, defending its territory through alliances with the
British British may refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies. * British national identity, the characteristics of British people and culture ...
and resisting inland incursions.


Anglo–Asante Wars, Colonization and the Partition of the Akan World

Throughout the 19th century, repeated clashes between the
Asante Empire The Asante Empire ( Asante Twi: ), also known as the Ashanti Empire, was an Akan state that lasted from 1701 to 1901, in what is now modern-day Ghana. It expanded from the Ashanti Region to include most of Ghana and also parts of Ivory Coast ...
and the
British Empire The British Empire comprised the dominions, Crown colony, colonies, protectorates, League of Nations mandate, mandates, and other Dependent territory, territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It bega ...
reshaped the Akan political landscape. Early diplomatic efforts—such as treaties by Thomas Bowdich (1817) and
William Dupuis William is a masculine given name of Germanic origin. It became popular in England after the Norman conquest in 1066,All Things William"Meaning & Origin of the Name"/ref> and remained so throughout the Middle Ages and into the modern era. It is ...
(1820)—failed to prevent hostilities. The Anglo–Ashanti wars erupted in cycles: the 1824 battle at Nsamankow, the 1826 defeat at Katamanso, and the 1874 British invasion of Kumasi, which led to the looting of the palace and destruction of regalia. Although weakened,
Asante Asante may refer to: *Asante people, an ethnic group in Ghana *Asante Empire *Asante (name) *Asante dialect, a dialect of the Akan languages * Asante Kotoko S.C., a Ghanaian professional association football club *Asante (album), 1974 jazz album b ...
remained autonomous until 1900, when a final confrontation over British demands for the
Golden Stool The Golden Stool ( Ashanti-; full title, Sika Dwa Kofi "the Golden Stool born on a Friday") is the royal and divine throne of kings of the Asante people and the ultimate symbol of power in Asante. According to legend, Okomfo Anokye, High Priest ...
triggered the
War of the Golden Stool The War of the Golden Stool, also known as the Yaa Asantewaa War, the Third Ashanti Expedition, the Ashanti Uprising, or variations thereof, was a campaign in 1900 during the series of conflicts between the United Kingdom and the Ashanti Empire ...
. Led by
Yaa Asantewaa Yaa Asantewaa I (184017October 1921) was the Queen Mother of Ejisu in the Ashanti Empire, now part of modern-day Ghana. She was appointed by her brother Nana Akwasi Afrane Okese, the Edwesuhene, or ruler, of Edwesu. In 1900, she led the Ashanti ...
, Queen Mother of
Ejisu Ejisu is a city in Greater Kumasi located along the Kumasi-Accra highway about 20 km from Kumasi. It is the capital of Ejisu Municipal Assembly, a municipal A municipality is usually a single administrative division having corporate s ...
, Asante resistance culminated in the siege of Kumasi, the exile of
Asantehene The is the title for the monarch of the historical Ashanti Empire as well as the ceremonial ruler of the Ashanti people today. The Ashanti royal house traces its line to the Oyoko (an '' Abusua'', or "clan") Abohyen Dynasty of Nana Twum and ...
Prempeh I, and Asante's formal incorporation into the
British colony A Crown colony or royal colony was a colony governed by England, and then Great Britain or the United Kingdom within the English and later British Empire. There was usually a governor to represent the Crown, appointed by the British monarch on ...
by 1901. Meanwhile,
Gyaman Gyaman (also spelled Gyaaman or Jamang, and later known as Jaman) was a prominent precolonial Akan people, Akan kingdom that flourished in parts of present-day Ghana and Ivory Coast. Established by the Bono people from the Abusua, Aduana clan, G ...
engaged with French expansion in the western Sudan. In 1888, the Gyamanhene signed a protection treaty with
France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...
to resist
Asante Asante may refer to: *Asante people, an ethnic group in Ghana *Asante Empire *Asante (name) *Asante dialect, a dialect of the Akan languages * Asante Kotoko S.C., a Ghanaian professional association football club *Asante (album), 1974 jazz album b ...
and
British British may refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies. * British national identity, the characteristics of British people and culture ...
encroachment. France failed to assert control, and in 1895,
Samori Touré Samori Ture ( – June 2, 1900), also known as Samori Toure, Samory Touré, or Almamy Samore Lafiya Toure, was a Malinke and a Soninke Muslim cleric, military strategist, and founder of a massive empire that stretched across present-day north an ...
launched a devastating campaign that destabilized the region. After the French expelled Samori in 1897, Gyaman was partitioned: the western zone, including
Bonduku Bondoukou (var. Bonduku, Bontuku) is a city in northeastern Ivory Coast, 420 km northeast of Abidjan. It is the seat of both Zanzan District and Gontougo Region. It is also a commune and the seat of and a sub-prefecture of Bondoukou Departme ...
, was annexed into
French West Africa French West Africa (, ) was a federation of eight French colonial empires#Second French colonial empire, French colonial territories in West Africa: Colonial Mauritania, Mauritania, French Senegal, Senegal, French Sudan (now Mali), French Guin ...
, while the eastern section, centered on
Sampa The Speech Assessment Methods Phonetic Alphabet (SAMPA) is a computer-readable phonetic script using 7-bit printable ASCII characters, based on the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). It was originally developed in the late 1980s for six Europ ...
, became part of the
British Protectorate British protectorates were protectorates under the jurisdiction of the British government. Many territories which became British protectorates already had local rulers with whom the Crown negotiated through treaty, acknowledging their status wh ...
. On the coast, polities such as the
Fante Confederacy The Fante Confederacy (also called a confederation, federation, and other similar terms) powerful alliance of small kingdoms and autonomous city-states in what is now coastal Ghana, united by the Fante people. Centered on the political and spiri ...
,
Elmina Elmina ( Fante: ''Edina'') is a town and the capital of the Komenda/Edina/Eguafo/Abirem District on the south coast of Ghana in the Central Region. It is situated on a bay on the Atlantic Ocean, west of Cape Coast.Straight line distances ...
,
Asebu Asebu (also known as Sabou) is a town and a former Fante chiefdom in the Abura/Asebu/Kwamankese District, Central Region, Ghana. In the history of the Gold Coast, Asebu is notable for being the first Fante chiefdom to sign a treaty with the D ...
, and
Anomabo Anomabu, also spelled Anomabo and formerly as Annamaboe, is a town on the coast of the Mfantsiman Municipal District of the Central Region of South Ghana. Anomabu has a settlement population of 14,389 people. Anomabu is located 12 km east ...
were gradually brought under indirect British rule through treaties and trade. By the early 20th century, nearly all Akan territories had been absorbed into the colonial framework of the
British Gold Coast The Gold Coast was a British Empire, British Crown colony on the Gulf of Guinea in West Africa from 1821 until its independence in 1957 as Ghana. The term Gold Coast is also often used to describe all of the four separate jurisdictions that w ...
and the
French Colonial Empire The French colonial empire () comprised the overseas Colony, colonies, protectorates, and League of Nations mandate, mandate territories that came under French rule from the 16th century onward. A distinction is generally made between the "Firs ...
. In central
Côte d’Ivoire Ivory Coast, also known as Côte d'Ivoire and officially the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire, is a country on the southern coast of West Africa. Its capital city of Yamoussoukro is located in the centre of the country, while its largest city and ...
, the Baoulé also resisted colonial occupation. In 1906, Governor
Gabriel Angoulvant Gabriel Louis Angoulvant (born 1872 in Longjumeau, France – died 1932 in Paris) was a colonial administrator in the second French colonial empire. He was appointed governor of French Ivory Coast in 1908. He had little prior experience in Afr ...
launched a military campaign to forcibly subdue Baoulé chiefdoms, marking one of the last major uprisings against French rule in the region.


Independence and Legacy of Akan Political Heritage

On 6 March 1957, under the leadership of
Kwame Nkrumah Francis Kwame Nkrumah (, 21 September 1909 – 27 April 1972) was a Ghanaian politician, political theorist, and revolutionary. He served as Prime Minister of the Gold Coast (British colony), Gold Coast from 1952 until 1957, when it gained ...
and the
Convention People's Party The Convention People's Party (CPP) is a socialist political party in Ghana based on the ideas of the first President of Ghana, Kwame Nkrumah. The CPP was formed in June 1949 after Nkrumah broke away from the United Gold Coast Convention (UGC ...
, the Gold Coast became the first sub-Saharan African colony to achieve independence from European colonial rule. The new nation was renamed
Ghana Ghana, officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It is situated along the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, and shares borders with Côte d’Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, and Togo to t ...
, symbolically connecting modern statehood to the region's historic legacy of powerful African empires. The territory united the Gold Coast colony with
British Togoland British Togoland, officially the Mandate Territory of Togoland and later officially the Trust Territory of Togoland, was a territory in West Africa under the administration of the United Kingdom, which subsequently entered a union with Ghana, pa ...
, as well as the Northern and Upper regions, forming a multiethnic state that nonetheless drew heavily on the political and symbolic legacy of Akan institutions—including chieftaincy systems, council governance, and traditions of resistance. Across the border, neighboring
Ivory Coast Ivory Coast, also known as Côte d'Ivoire and officially the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire, is a country on the southern coast of West Africa. Its capital city of Yamoussoukro is located in the centre of the country, while its largest List of ci ...
gained independence from
France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...
in 1960 under the leadership of
Félix Houphouët-Boigny Félix Houphouët-Boigny (; 18 October 1905 – 7 December 1993), affectionately called Papa Houphouët or Le Vieux ("The Old One"), was an Ivorian politician and physician who served as the first List of heads of state of Ivory Coast, pr ...
, a prominent Baoulé figure who had served as a French parliamentarian. As president, Houphouët-Boigny oversaw the establishment of a centralized state that integrated traditional Akan political culture with republican governance. The
Democratic Party of Côte d'Ivoire Democrat, Democrats, or Democratic may refer to: Politics *A proponent of democracy, or democratic government; a form of government involving rule by the people. *A member of a Democratic Party: **Democratic Party (Cyprus) (DCY) **Democratic Part ...
(PDCI), which he founded, remained the dominant political force for decades, and its core support was drawn from Akan-speaking populations in the forest zone. Like Ghana, Ivory Coast is home to a significant Akan population—estimated at nearly 40% of the national total—including groups such as the Baule, Agni (Anyi), and Nzima. Many Akan-descended communities retained customary authority structures alongside colonial and postcolonial institutions. In 1969, the Sanwi kingdom of Krinjabo, claiming descent from
Agni Agni ( ) is the Deva (Hinduism), Hindu god of fire. As the Guardians of the directions#Aṣṭa-Dikpāla ("Guardians of Eight Directions"), guardian deity of the southeast direction, he is typically found in southeast corners of Hindu temples. ...
royalty, famously attempted to secede from Ivory Coast and restore monarchical rule. Though unsuccessful, the attempt underscored the enduring cultural relevance of Akan identity, kingship, and historical memory in the modern Ivorian state.


Akan politics

The Akans consider themselves one nation. Akan means first, foremost, indicating the enlightened and civilized. While traditionally matrilineal, they are also united philosophically through 12 patrilineal spirit groups called the
Ntoro The Ntoro is the spiritual-genetic aspect of the father which the Akan people believe is passed on to his children. These 12 Ntoro are considered inherited deities (spirits) who govern guide and protect their 12 clans patrilineally. The Akan believ ...
''.'' Within the Akan nation are branches based on many dialects, widest and possibly the oldest one being used is Twi as well as Fante. Each branch subsequently holds a collection of states and stemming from city-states. The state or Ɔman are typically ruled by several kings known as Amanhene(''Ɔmanhene'', singular) or Ahemfo(''Ɔhene'', singular. The state is the basic unit of Akan polity. Several states and city-states can band together to form a confederacy or an empire regardless of clan or
abusua Abusua is the name in Akan culture for a group of people that share common maternal ancestry governed by seven major ancient abosom (deities).
they belong to, while those outsides of the Akan people or the abusua were usually conquered or annexed via war or mutual agreement. For example, the Guan state of Larteh and the Akyem state of Akropong joined to form the Akwapim Kingdom to avoid the Akwamu, who the Guan deemed as oppressive. Under the State there are Divisions and under these Divisions are towns and villages. The Fantes also upon migrating from the interior Takyiman conquered other Guan tribes including Efutu and Ewutu and merged them into Mfantseman Akan kings are ranked according to their jurisdiction. The head of an inter-clan Confederacy is usually considered a King, as in the Kings of Ashanti, Fante, Akyem and the Akwapim. Under these are the heads of the constituent states who equates an
Emperor The word ''emperor'' (from , via ) can mean the male ruler of an empire. ''Empress'', the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), mother/grandmother (empress dowager/grand empress dowager), or a woman who rules ...
that only heads an
Empire An empire is a political unit made up of several territories, military outpost (military), outposts, and peoples, "usually created by conquest, and divided between a hegemony, dominant center and subordinate peripheries". The center of the ...
(e.g.,
Asante Empire The Asante Empire ( Asante Twi: ), also known as the Ashanti Empire, was an Akan state that lasted from 1701 to 1901, in what is now modern-day Ghana. It expanded from the Ashanti Region to include most of Ghana and also parts of Ivory Coast ...
and the
Denkyira Denkyira (also known as Denkira, Denchira, Inguira, or Dinkira) was a powerful Akan kingdom that rose to prominence in precolonial Ghana, dominating large parts of the forest zone in the south-central Gold Coast. Centered around its capital at ...
). In Asante's case, as an Empire, the Asantehene reigned over the non-Oyoko clan city-states and ruled over the kings of those states as an Imperial head or Emperor (a hardly used but an equivalent term for Emperor or ''the king of kings''). Next there are divisional Chiefs, they are primarily arranged according to the five divisions of an Akan army. The Fante army or
Asafo 300px, Asafo flag, No. 2 Company; created by Akwa Osei, Ghana, Fante people; c. 1900, Cotton and rayon, embroidery and appliqué Asafo flag, No. 1 Company Asafo are traditional warrior groups in Akan culture, based on lineal descent. The word ...
formation resembles a cross or an airplane. The Fante battle formations eventually had some European influences and many Asafo Frankaa (battle flags) incorporated the British Union Jack after 1844 when they allied with them. The battle formation has the Frontline, the West Flank, an East Flank, the main body and the Vanguard. There are, therefore, five divisional chiefs in each Paramountcy. These are followed in rank by the Kings of the city and then the Kings of the town and then king of the suburbs. The Akan peoples mostly have seven Abusua (Matrilineal clans/tribes) in each state. They do not have the same names in each state but each has an equivalent clan (e.g. in Fante areas along the coast, the Asante clan of Oyoko is referred to as Dehyena or Yokofo). The clans are assigned States which they rule by their status as founders of that jurisdiction. The Ashanti Kingdom is ruled by the Oyoko Clan. However, the Bretuo or Twidanfo (in Fante), as well as other clans, rule States, Divisions, Towns, and Villages within the Kingdom. The Fante-speaking peoples usually have the Asona Clan ruling most of their States (like Mankessim). Certain sub-clans or lineages have exclusive rights to some stools within Akanland such as the lineage of Afia Kobi in the Oyoko Clan who alone sits on the Golden Stool of Asante. The Akans are traditionally a Matrilineal people of the African continent. Matrilineal inheritance makes it easier to trace the line of succession. Within each lineage or House are the branches. The chief of a family is called an ''Abusuapanyin'' (or family-elder). Ranking above a family chief (a family's Abusuapanyin) is the clan's chief (or clan's Abusuapanyin). These branches are called Jaase/Gyaase or Kitchens. Each Kitchen takes its turn to present a candidate for the stool to the kingmakers of the lineage. Once accepted their candidate rules till death. This means until all the Jaase have presented their candidates they have to wait their turn. Akan Kings of whatever rank have other nobleman who serve them as sub-chiefs. These sub-chiefs do not have hereditary titles and therefore do not have black stools. Besides, each King has a female co-ruler known as the Queen-mother. The Queen-mother is more like a figurehead representing the King's or Emperor's eldest sister and hence the mother of the next King or Emperor, she could rule as a King if she wishes (e.g. queen-mothers mainly from the House of Asona clan:
Nana Nana, Na Na or NANA may refer to: People * Nana (given name), including a list of people and characters with the given name * Nana (surname), including a list of people and characters with the surname * Nana (chief) (died 1896), Mimbreño Ap ...
Abena Boaa who ruled Offinso 1610–1640, Nana Afia Dokuaa who ruled Akyem Abuakwa 1817–1835, and Nana
Yaa Asantewaa Yaa Asantewaa I (184017October 1921) was the Queen Mother of Ejisu in the Ashanti Empire, now part of modern-day Ghana. She was appointed by her brother Nana Akwasi Afrane Okese, the Edwesuhene, or ruler, of Edwesu. In 1900, she led the Ashanti ...
who ruled Edweso 1896–1900) as well as Komfo Muna who ruled Mankessim 1830–1872. They present the candidate for consideration as King. An assistant king does not have a Queen-mother as his title is not hereditary. A Prince or Daakyehen(Fante)(lit ''Future-king'') is any of the members of the lineage eligible to sit on a stool. However, not all royals are Princes as some may be ineligible. A prince is not necessarily the son of a King but rather the former King's nephew on the mother's side. As such, royals strive to achieve the position of a prince in their families or for their children. All Akan clans are considered royal in the context of their matrilineal society. Each clan, known as ''abusua'', plays a significant role in inheritance, succession, and the selection of chiefs. The eight main Akan clans—Oyoko, Bretuo, Agona, Asona, Asenie, Aduana, Ekuona, and Asakyiri—are integral to the governance of their respective communities. Members of these clans are viewed as royals, as chiefs are traditionally chosen from them, reinforcing their royal status within Akan culture. A sub-chief does not, however, need to be a nobleman. He only has to be suitable for the position he is to occupy. Some sub-chieftaincy positions can be abolished at will. They include the heads of the ruling house or Mankrado, the Linquist, the Chief Kingmaker or Jaasehen/Gyaasehen, the Supi (Fante) or General of the Army, the Captains of the Army or Asafohen(Fante) among others. The way Akans ruled their nation fascinated the tribes and peoples of other West African nations and as the Akans conquered or formed alliances with these nations, parts of it were transmitted to them. The British particularly felt the Akan system was highly efficient and tried to establish it throughout their dominions in West Africa using the Indirect Rule System. The Ewes and the Ga-Adangmes with their close affinity to the Akans have modified certain aspects of it to fit their societies. In Ghana and other modern states where the Akan people are located, the Kings, Assistant Kings, Princes, and Noblemen of the Akans serve mostly a symbolic role. Modern politics has side-lined them in national politics although it is common to find that an elected or appointed official to be of Akan royalty. And, especially in the villages and poor areas, traditional Kings are still very important for organizing development, social services and keeping the peace. Some Kings have decided to push ahead with the leadership of their Kingdoms and States in a non-political fashion. The Asantehen and okyehen have emphasized Education and Environmental Sustainability respectively. Others push the national government and its agents to fulfill promises to their people. In modern Ghana, a quasi-legislative/judicial body known as the House of "Chiefs"(a colonial term to belittle African Kings because of the racist belief to not equate an African King with a European King in rank) has been established to oversee "chieftaincy" and the Government of Ghana as the British Government once did certifies the Chiefs and gazettes them. Several Akan Kings sit at the various levels of the National House of "Chiefs". Each Paramountcy has a Traditional Council, then there is the Regional House of "Chiefs" and lastly the National House of "Chiefs". Akan Kings who once warred with each other and Kings of other nations within Ghana now sit with them to build peace and advocate development for their nations. The identity of an Akan nation or meta-ethnicity is expressed by the term ''Akanman''. The Akan word ''ɔman'' (''plural Aman'') which forms the second element in this expression has a meaning much of "community, town, nation, state". has been translated as "Akanland".


Akan language

Akan refers to the language of the Akan
ethnolinguistic Ethnolinguistics (sometimes called cultural linguistics) is an area of anthropological linguistics that studies the relationship between a language or group of languages and the cultural practices of the people who speak those languages. It exa ...
group and the Akan language which was and is the most widely spoken and used
indigenous language An indigenous language, or autochthonous language, is a language that is native to a region and spoken by its indigenous peoples. Indigenous languages are not necessarily national languages but they can be; for example, Aymara is both an indigen ...
in the Akan peoples in Ghana. Each ethnic group having its own dialect Akan is officially recognized for literacy in the Akan-majority regions, at the primary and elementary educational stage (Primary 1–3) K–12 (education) level, and studied at university as a bachelor's degree or master's degree program. The Akan language is spoken as the predominant language in the Western, Central, Ashanti, Eastern, Brong Ahafo regions of the akan clan. A language with some Akan influence called Ndyuka is also spoken in South America (Suriname and French Guiana), with the Akan language coming to these South American and Caribbean places through the trans-Atlantic slave trade and Akan names and folktales are still used in these South American and Caribbean countries (another example can be seen in the Maroons of
Jamaica Jamaica is an island country in the Caribbean Sea and the West Indies. At , it is the third-largest island—after Cuba and Hispaniola—of the Greater Antilles and the Caribbean. Jamaica lies about south of Cuba, west of Hispaniola (the is ...
and their influence with Akan culture and loanwords specifically from the
Fante dialect Fante (), also known as Fanti, Fantse, or Mfantse, is one of the three literary dialects of the Akan language, along with Asante dialect, Asante and Akuapem dialect, Akuapem, with which it is Mutual intelligibility, mutually intelligible. It is ...
of the Central Region of
Ghana Ghana, officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It is situated along the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, and shares borders with Côte d’Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, and Togo to t ...
) in the language of
Jamaican Maroon Creole Jamaican Maroon language, Maroon Spirit language, Kromanti, Jamaican Maroon Creole or Deep patwa is a ritual language and formerly mother tongue of Jamaican Maroons. It is an English-based creole with a strong Akan component, specifically from ...
or Kromanti. With the present state of technology, one can listen to live radio broadcasts in Akan from numerous radio stations and receive mass media and public broadcasts in Akan from numerous multimedia and media broadcasting. Akan is studied in major universities in North America and the United States, including Ohio University, Ohio State University, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Harvard University, Boston University, Indiana University, University of Michigan, and the University of Florida. The Akan language has been a regular language of study in the annual Summer Cooperative African Languages Institute (SCALI) program and the Akan language is regulated and administered by the
Akan Orthography Committee The Akan Orthography Committee (AOC) was founded for the promotion of the Akan language and has since created a standard dialect for Akan. Orthography A standardized writing and orthographic writing system for Akan was completed by the Akan Orth ...
(AOC). Some of Akan's language characteristic features include
tone Tone may refer to: Visual arts and color-related * Tone (color theory), a mix of tint and shade, in painting and color theory * Tone (color), the lightness or brightness (as well as darkness) of a color * Toning (coin), color change in coins * ...
,
vowel harmony In phonology, vowel harmony is a phonological rule in which the vowels of a given domain – typically a phonological word – must share certain distinctive features (thus "in harmony"). Vowel harmony is typically long distance, meaning tha ...
, and
nasalization In phonetics, nasalization (or nasalisation in British English) is the production of a sound while the velum is lowered, so that some air escapes through the nose during the production of the sound by the mouth. An archetypal nasal sound is . ...
.


Culture

Akan culture is one of the traditional
matrilineal Matrilineality, at times called matriliny, is the tracing of kinship through the female line. It may also correlate with a social system in which people identify with their matriline, their mother's lineage, and which can involve the inheritan ...
cultures of Africa. Akan art is wide-ranging and renowned, especially for the tradition of crafting bronze gold weights, using the
lost-wax casting Lost-wax castingalso called investment casting, precision casting, or ''cire perdue'' (; borrowed from French)is the process by which a duplicate sculpture (often a metal, such as silver, gold, brass, or bronze) is cast from an original scul ...
method. The Akan culture reached South America, the Caribbean, and North America. Some of their most important mythological stories are called ''anansesem'', literally meaning "the spider story", but in a figurative sense also meaning "traveler's tales". These "spider stories" are sometimes also referred to as ''nyankomsem'': "words of a sky god". The stories generally, but not always, revolve around Kwaku Ananse, a trickster spirit, often depicted as a spider, human, or a combination thereof. Elements of Akan culture also include, but are not limited to: * Akan art *
Kente cloth Kente refers to a Ghanaian textile made of hand-woven strips of silk and cotton. Historically the fabric was worn in a toga-like fashion among the Asante, Akan and Ewe people. According to Asante oral tradition, it originated from Bonwire in th ...
*
Adinkra symbols ''Adinkra'' are symbols from Ghana that represent concepts or aphorisms. ''Adinkra'' are used extensively in fabrics, logos and pottery. They are incorporated into walls and other architectural features. ''Adinkra'' symbols appear on some tradi ...
* Outdooring naming ceremony *
Akan names The Akan people of Ghana, Ivory Coast, and Togo frequently name their children after the day of the week they were born and the order in which they were born. These "day names" have further meanings concerning the soul and character of the person ...
* Akan calendar *
Akan chieftaincy In many parts of West Africa, there is an old chieftaincy tradition, and the Akan people have developed their own hierarchy, which exists alongside the democratic structure of the country. The Akan word for the ruler, or one of his various cou ...
* Akan gold weights *
Akan religion Akan religion comprises the traditional beliefs and religious practices of the Akan people of Ghana and eastern Ivory Coast. Akan religion is referred to as Akom. Although most Akan people have identified as Christians since the early 20th cen ...
*
Momome Momome is a female cleansing ritual among some Akan groups in present-day Ghana and Ivory Coast. The ritual is aimed at cleansing the community from impending crisis. The momome ritual in the precolonial setting was held in response to wars, but i ...


Beliefs


Concepts of Akan philosophy and inheritance

These are the basic concepts of Akan philosophy and inheritance: *''
Abusua Abusua is the name in Akan culture for a group of people that share common maternal ancestry governed by seven major ancient abosom (deities).
'' () – What an Akan inherits from his mother *
Ntoro The Ntoro is the spiritual-genetic aspect of the father which the Akan people believe is passed on to his children. These 12 Ntoro are considered inherited deities (spirits) who govern guide and protect their 12 clans patrilineally. The Akan believ ...
– What an Akan gets from his father, but one does not belong to a ''Ntoro''; instead one belongs to one's ''Abusua'' *''
Sunsum In the spiritual practices of the Ashanti people and Akan people, the sunsum is one's spirit. The sunsum is what connects the body (honam) to the soul ( kra). The sunsum can be transmitted in a variety of ways, including from father to son during c ...
'' – What an Akan develops from interaction with the world *'' Kra'' – What an Akan gets from ''Nyame'' (God)


Matrilineality

Many but not all of the Akan stillde Witte, Marleen (2001). ''Long Live the Dead!: changing funeral celebrations in Asante, Ghana''. Published by Het Spinhuis.
.
practice their traditional matrilineal customs, living in their traditional
extended family An extended family is a family that extends beyond the nuclear family of parents and their children to include aunts, uncles, grandparents, cousins or other relatives, all living nearby or in the same household. Particular forms include the stem ...
households. The traditional Akan economic and political organization is based on matrilineal ''lineages'', which are the basis of inheritance and succession. A ''lineage'' is defined as all those related by
matrilineal descent Matrilineality, at times called matriliny, is the tracing of kinship through the female line. It may also correlate with a social system in which people identify with their matriline, their mother's lineage, and which can involve the inheritanc ...
from a particular ancestress. Several lineages are grouped into a political unit headed by a council of elders, each of whom is the elected head of a lineage – which itself may include multiple extended-family households. Public offices are, thus, vested in the lineage, as are land tenure and other lineage property. In other words, lineage property is inherited only by matrilineal kin.Busia, Kofi Abrefa (1970). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 1970. William Benton, publisher, The
University of Chicago The University of Chicago (UChicago, Chicago, or UChi) is a Private university, private research university in Chicago, Illinois, United States. Its main campus is in the Hyde Park, Chicago, Hyde Park neighborhood on Chicago's South Side, Chic ...
. , Vol. 1, p. 477. (This Akan article was written by Kofi Abrefa Busia, formerly professor of Sociology and Culture of Africa at the
University of Leiden Leiden University (abbreviated as ''LEI''; ) is a public research university in Leiden, Netherlands. Established in 1575 by William, Prince of Orange as a Protestant institution, it holds the distinction of being the oldest university in the Neth ...
, Netherlands.)
Each lineage controls the lineage land farmed by its members, functions together in the veneration of its ancestors, supervises marriages of its members, and settles internal disputes among its members. The political units above are likewise grouped (into traditionally seven) but as of today, eight larger groups called ''
abusua Abusua is the name in Akan culture for a group of people that share common maternal ancestry governed by seven major ancient abosom (deities).
'': Aduana, Agona, Asakyiri, Asenie, Asona, Bretuo, Ekuona, and Oyoko. The members of each such ''abusua'' are united by their belief that they are all descended from the same ancient ancestress – so marriage between members of the same group (or ''abusua'') is forbidden, a taboo on marriage. One inherits or is a lifelong member of, the lineage, the political unit and the ''abusua'' of one's mother, regardless of one's gender or marriage. Members and their spouses thus belong to different ''abusuas'', with mother and children living and working in one household, and their husband/father living and working in a different household. According to one source of information about the Akan, "A man is strongly related to his mother's brother (wɔfa) but only weakly related to his father's brother. This is perhaps viewed in the context of a
polygamous Polygamy (from Late Greek , "state of marriage to many spouses") is the practice of marrying multiple spouses. When a man is married to more than one wife at the same time, it is called polygyny. When a woman is married to more than one h ...
society in which the mother/child bond is likely to be much stronger than the father/child bond. As a result, in inheritance, a man's nephew (his sister's son) (wɔfase) will have priority over his own son. Uncle-nephew relationships, therefore, assume a dominant position." "The principles governing inheritance, generation, and age – that is to say, men come before women and seniors before juniors." ..When a woman's brothers are available, a consideration of generational seniority stipulates that the line of brothers be exhausted before the right to inherit lineage property passes down to the next senior genealogical generation of sisters' sons. Finally, "it is when all possible male heirs have been exhausted that the females" may inherit. Certain other aspects of the Akan culture are determined
patrilineally Patrilineality, also known as the male line, the spear side or agnatic kinship, is a common kinship system in which an individual's family membership derives from and is recorded through their father's lineage. It generally involves the inheritanc ...
rather than matrilineally. There are ancestrally 12 patrilineal ''
Ntoro The Ntoro is the spiritual-genetic aspect of the father which the Akan people believe is passed on to his children. These 12 Ntoro are considered inherited deities (spirits) who govern guide and protect their 12 clans patrilineally. The Akan believ ...
'' (spirit) groups, and everyone belongs to his or her father's ''Ntoro'' group, but not to his family lineage and ''abusua''. Each ''Ntoro'' group has its own surnames, taboos, ritual purifications, and forms of etiquette. A person thus inherits one's ''Ntoro'' from one's father but does not belong to his family. A recent (2001) book provides an update on the Akan, stating that some families are changing from the above ''abusua'' structure to the
nuclear family A nuclear family (also known as an elementary family, atomic family, or conjugal family) is a term for a family group consisting of parents and their children (one or more), typically living in one home residence. It is in contrast to a single ...
.de Witte (2001), p. 53. Housing, childcare, education, daily work, and elder care, etc. are then handled by that individual family, rather than by the ''abusua'' or clan, especially in the city. The above taboo on marriage within one's ''abusua'' is sometimes ignored, but "clan membership" is still important, with many people still living in the ''abusua'' framework presented above.


Notable individuals of Akan origin

*
Blessing Afrifah Blessing Akwasi Afrifah (; born 26 October 2003) is an Israeli track and field athlete who specializes in the sprints. He was the 200 metres champion at both the 2022 World Athletics U20 Championships, and at the 2023 European Athletics U23 Cham ...
(born 2003) -
Israel Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in West Asia. It Borders of Israel, shares borders with Lebanon to the north, Syria to the north-east, Jordan to the east, Egypt to the south-west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the west. Isr ...
i Olympic sprinter *
Kofi Annan Kofi Atta Annan (8 April 193818 August 2018) was a Ghanaian diplomat who served as the seventh secretary-general of the United Nations from 1997 to 2006. Annan and the UN were the co-recipients of the 2001 Nobel Peace Prize. He was the founder a ...
(1938–2018) – the first black man to
head A head is the part of an organism which usually includes the ears, brain, forehead, cheeks, chin, eyes, nose, and mouth, each of which aid in various sensory functions such as sight, hearing, smell, and taste. Some very simple ani ...
the
United Nations The United Nations (UN) is the Earth, global intergovernmental organization established by the signing of the Charter of the United Nations, UN Charter on 26 June 1945 with the stated purpose of maintaining international peace and internationa ...
. He was awarded the
Nobel Prize The Nobel Prizes ( ; ; ) are awards administered by the Nobel Foundation and granted in accordance with the principle of "for the greatest benefit to humankind". The prizes were first awarded in 1901, marking the fifth anniversary of Alfred N ...
*
Kwame Nkrumah Francis Kwame Nkrumah (, 21 September 1909 – 27 April 1972) was a Ghanaian politician, political theorist, and revolutionary. He served as Prime Minister of the Gold Coast (British colony), Gold Coast from 1952 until 1957, when it gained ...
(1909–1972) – started the pan-African movement, which liberated many
states State most commonly refers to: * State (polity), a centralized political organization that regulates law and society within a territory **Sovereign state, a sovereign polity in international law, commonly referred to as a country **Nation state, a ...
from European colonialism. *
Arthur Wharton Arthur Wharton (28 October 1865 – 12 December 1930) was a British footballer. He is widely considered to be the first black professional footballer in the world. Though not the first black player outright – the amateurs Robert Walker, of Q ...
(1865–1930) – the first black
professional footballer Association football is the world's most popular sport and is worth US$600 billion worldwide. By the end of the 20th century it was played by over 250 million players in over 200 countries. Around the world, the sport is played at a profes ...
in the world.J. A. Mangan, ''The Cultural bond: sport, empire, society'' * George Manneh Oppong Weah


Gallery

File:Akan dancer.jpg, Akan Woman. File:Brooklyn Museum 1993.182.3 Staff Finial.jpg, Akan metalwork from the
Brooklyn Museum The Brooklyn Museum is an art museum in the New York City borough (New York City), borough of Brooklyn. At , the museum is New York City's second largest and contains an art collection with around 500,000 objects. Located near the Prospect Heig ...
,
New York City New York, often called New York City (NYC), is the most populous city in the United States, located at the southern tip of New York State on one of the world's largest natural harbors. The city comprises five boroughs, each coextensive w ...
,
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
. File:Brooklyn Museum 1998.36 Mask Bo Nun Amuin.jpg, Mask (Bo Nun Amuin), from the early 20th century. File:Brooklyn Museum 22.1771 Elephant Mask GlaoKlolo (3).jpg, Wooden mask of an elephant. File: COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Houten masker van een woudgod TMnr 3305-16.jpg, Wooden mask of a forest god. File: Gold ornaments (mask and shield), Ashanti - African objects in the American Museum of Natural History - DSC05964.JPG,
Empire of Ashanti The Asante Empire (Asante Twi: ), also known as the Ashanti Empire, was an Akan people, Akan state that lasted from 1701 to 1901, in what is now modern-day Ghana. It expanded from the Ashanti Region to include most of Ghana and also parts of I ...
warrior A warrior is a guardian specializing in combat or warfare, especially within the context of a tribal society, tribal or clan-based warrior culture society that recognizes a separate warrior aristocracy, social class, class, or caste. History ...
military golden war
combat helmet A combat helmet, also called a ballistic helmet, battle helmet, or helmet system (for some Modular design, modular accessory-centric designs) is a type of helmet designed to serve as a piece of body armor intended to protect the wearer's head du ...
and
personal armour Body armour, personal armour (also spelled ''armor''), armoured suit (''armored'') or coat of armour, among others, is armour for a person's body: protective clothing or close-fitting hands-free shields designed to absorb or deflect physical a ...
of the
Empire of Ashanti The Asante Empire (Asante Twi: ), also known as the Ashanti Empire, was an Akan people, Akan state that lasted from 1701 to 1901, in what is now modern-day Ghana. It expanded from the Ashanti Region to include most of Ghana and also parts of I ...
Museum of Natural History A natural history museum or museum of natural history is a scientific institution with natural history collections that include current and historical records of animals, plants, fungi, ecosystems, geology, paleontology, climatology, and more ...
. File:Ashantee soldier2.jpg,
Empire of Ashanti The Asante Empire (Asante Twi: ), also known as the Ashanti Empire, was an Akan people, Akan state that lasted from 1701 to 1901, in what is now modern-day Ghana. It expanded from the Ashanti Region to include most of Ghana and also parts of I ...
scout Scout may refer to: Youth movement *Scout (Scouting), a child, usually 10–18 years of age, participating in the worldwide Scouting movement ** Scouts (The Scout Association), section for 10-14 year olds in the United Kingdom ** Scouts BSA, sect ...
, ,
Visual Art The visual arts are art forms such as painting, drawing, printmaking, sculpture, ceramics, photography, video, image, filmmaking, design, crafts, and architecture. Many artistic disciplines such as performing arts, conceptual art, and texti ...
Joseph Dupuis Joseph Dupuis (1789–1874) was appointed as consul and vice-consul for the British Government between 1811 and 1842, with various postings to the African Continent during that period, including one as vice-consul in Mogador. He was married to Eve ...
. File: Asante map.jpg,
Empire of Ashanti The Asante Empire (Asante Twi: ), also known as the Ashanti Empire, was an Akan people, Akan state that lasted from 1701 to 1901, in what is now modern-day Ghana. It expanded from the Ashanti Region to include most of Ghana and also parts of I ...
and the Gold Coast map. File:African-civilizations-map-pre-colonial.svg, Diachronic map showing "Akan-held territory
Ashantiland The Asante Empire (Asante Twi: ), also known as the Ashanti Empire, was an Akan state that lasted from 1701 to 1901, in what is now modern-day Ghana. It expanded from the Ashanti Region to include most of Ghana and also parts of Ivory Coast an ...
"
Sovereign ''Sovereign'' is a title that can be applied to the highest leader in various categories. The word is borrowed from Old French , which is ultimately derived from the Latin">-4; we might wonder whether there's a point at which it's appropriate to ...
nation state A nation state, or nation-state, is a political entity in which the State (polity), state (a centralized political organization ruling over a population within a territory) and the nation (a community based on a common identity) are (broadly ...
and territorial entity with pre-colonial states and cultures of Africa (spanning roughly 500 BCE to 1500 CE). This map is "an artistic interpretation" using multiple and disparate sources. File:The Mali Empire.jpg, The
Mali Empire The Mali Empire (Manding languages, Manding: ''Mandé''Ki-Zerbo, Joseph: ''UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. IV, Abridged Edition: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century'', p. 57. University of California Press, 1997. or ''Manden ...
in 1337, including the location of the
Bambuk Bambouk (sometimes Bambuk or Bambuhu) is a traditional name for the territory in eastern Senegal and western Mali, encompassing the Bambouk Mountains on its eastern edge, the valley of the Faleme River and the hilly country to the east of the r ...
,
Bure Bure may refer to: Places Belgium * Bure, Wallonia, Belgium, a small village in the Tellin municipality * Battle of Bure, a World War II battle during the Battle of the Bulge Eritrea and Ethiopia * Bure (disputed zone), on the border between Eri ...
, Lobi and
Akan Akan may refer to: People and languages *Akan people, an ethnic group in Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire *Akan languages, a language group within the wider Central Tano languages *Kwa languages, a language group which includes Akan *Central Tano language ...
Goldfields


See also

* List of rulers of the Akan state of Adanse * List of rulers of the Akan states of Akwamu and Twifo-Heman *
List of rulers of the Akan state of Bono-Tekyiman List of Rulers of the Akan (ethnic group), Akan state of Bono state, Bono-Tekyiman Bonoman (Bono State) Kings“The divine kingship in Ghana and ancient Egypt” of Mrs Eva Lewin-Richter Meyerowitz. 1960. 49a Redcliffe Road, London S.W. 10. ...
* List of rulers of the Akan state of Denkyira * List of rulers of the Akan state of Gyaaman * List of rulers of the Akan state of Akyem Abuakwa *
List of rulers of Asante The is the title for the monarch of the historical Ashanti Empire as well as the Chieftaincy institution (Ghana), ceremonial ruler of the Ashanti people today. The Ashanti royal house traces its line to the Oyoko (clan), Oyoko (an ''Abusua'', ...
*
Birimian The Birimian rocks are major sources of gold and diamonds that extend through Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea, Mali and Burkina Faso. They are named after the Birim River, one of the main tributaries of the Pra River in Ghana and the country's mo ...
*
Geology of Ghana The geology of Ghana is primarily very ancient crystalline basement rock, volcanic belts and sedimentary basins, affected by periods of igneous activity and two major orogeny mountain building events. Aside from modern sediments and some rocks fo ...
*
Gyaaman Gyaman (also spelled Gyaaman or Jamang, and later known as Jaman) was a prominent precolonial Akan kingdom that flourished in parts of present-day Ghana and Ivory Coast. Established by the Bono people from the Aduana clan, Gyaman evolved into ...
*
Tacky's War Tacky's Revolt (also known as Tacky's Rebellion and Tacky's War) was a slave rebellion in the British colony of Jamaica which lasted from 7 April 1760 to 1761. Spearheaded by self-emancipated Coromantee people, the rebels were led by a Fante ro ...


Notes


Sources

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *


References


Further reading

* Antubam, Kofi. ''Ghana's Heritage of Culture''. Leipzig, 1963. * Bartle, Philip F. W. (1978). "Forty Days; The Akan Calendar". ''Africa: Journal of the International African Institute'', 48 (1): 80–84.
Edinburgh University Press Edinburgh University Press is a scholarly publisher of academic books and journals, based in Edinburgh, Scotland. History Edinburgh University Press was founded in the 1940s and became a wholly owned subsidiary of the University of Edinburgh ...
. * Effah-Gyamfi, Kwaku (1979). ''Traditional History of the Bono State''. Legon: Institute of African Studies, University of Ghana. * Effah-Gyamfi, Kwaku (1985). ''Bono Manso: An Archaeological Investigation into Early Akan Urbanism''. African Occasional Papers, no. 2. Calgary: Dept. of Archaeology, University of Calgary Press. * Kyerematen, A. A. Y. ''Panoply of Ghana''. London, 1964. * Meyerowitz, Eva L. R. (c. 1950). ''Akan Traditions of Origin''. London. * Meyerowitz, Eva L. R. (1962). ''At the Court of an African King''. London. * Meyerowitz, Eva L. R. (1949). "Bono-Mansu, the Earliest Centre of Civilisation in the Gold Coast". In: ''Proceedings of the III International West African Conference'', pp. 118–120. * Obeng, Ernest E. ''Ancient Ashanti Chieftaincy''. Tema (Ghana), 1986. * Shumway, Rebecca (2011). ''The Fante and the Transatlantic Slave Trade''. Rochester: University of Rochester Press.


External links

* *
Kasahorow Akan Dictionary The Dictionary of Standard Written Akan''Akan Philosophy of the Person''
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2006) {{DEFAULTSORT:Akan People Indigenous peoples of West Africa West African people Ethnic groups in Ivory Coast Ethnic groups in Ghana