Herod Agrippa I ( Roman name: Marcus Julius Agrippa; ), also simply known as Herod Agrippa, Agrippa I, () or Agrippa the Great, was the last king of

Judea Judea or Judaea (; ; , ; ) is a mountainous region of the Levant. Traditionally dominated by the city of Jerusalem, it is now part of Palestine and Israel. The name's usage is historic, having been used in antiquity and still into the pres ...

. He was a grandson of

Herod the Great Herod I or Herod the Great () was a History of the Jews in the Roman Empire, Roman Jewish client king of the Herodian kingdom of Judea. He is known for his colossal building projects throughout Judea. Among these works are the rebuilding of the ...

and the father of

Herod Agrippa II Herod Agrippa II ( Roman name: Marcus Julius Agrippa, ; AD 27/28 – or 100), sometimes shortened to Agrippa II or Agrippa, was the last ruler from the Herodian dynasty, reigning over territories outside of Judea as a Roman client. Agrippa ...

, the last known king from the Herodian dynasty.Agrippa II held a title of king but he reigned over other territories in the

Eastern Mediterranean The Eastern Mediterranean is a loosely delimited region comprising the easternmost portion of the Mediterranean Sea, and well as the adjoining land—often defined as the countries around the Levantine Sea. It includes the southern half of Turkey ...

, not over Judea. He was an acquaintance or friend of Roman emperors and played crucial roles in internal Roman politics. He spent his childhood and youth at the imperial court in

Rome Rome (Italian language, Italian and , ) is the capital city and most populated (municipality) of Italy. It is also the administrative centre of the Lazio Regions of Italy, region and of the Metropolitan City of Rome. A special named with 2, ...

where he befriended the imperial princes

Claudius Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; ; 1 August 10 BC – 13 October AD 54), or Claudius, was a Roman emperor, ruling from AD 41 to 54. A member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, Claudius was born to Nero Claudius Drusus, Drusus and Ant ...

and Drusus. He suffered a period of disgrace following the death of Drusus which forced him to return to live in Judea. Back in Rome around 35,

Tiberius Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus ( ; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37) was Roman emperor from AD 14 until 37. He succeeded his stepfather Augustus, the first Roman emperor. Tiberius was born in Rome in 42 BC to Roman politician Tiberius Cl ...

made him the guardian of his grandson Tiberius Gemellus, and Agrippa approached the other designated heir,

Caligula Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (31 August 12 – 24 January 41), also called Gaius and Caligula (), was Roman emperor from AD 37 until his assassination in 41. He was the son of the Roman general Germanicus and Augustus' granddaughter Ag ...

. The advent of Caligula to the throne allowed Agrippa to become king of

Batanea Batanaea or Batanea was an area often mentioned between the first century BCE and the fourth century CE. It is often mixed with the biblical Bashan, the part of the Biblical Holy Land, northeast of the Jordan River, as its Latinized form. Bash ...

, Trachonitis, Gaulanitis, Auranitis, Paneas and Iturea in 37 by obtaining the old tetrarchies of

Philip Philip, also Phillip, is a male name derived from the Macedonian Old Koine language, Greek (''Philippos'', lit. "horse-loving" or "fond of horses"), from a compound of (''philos'', "dear", "loved", "loving") and (''hippos'', "horse"). Prominen ...

and Lysanias, then

Galilee Galilee (; ; ; ) is a region located in northern Israel and southern Lebanon consisting of two parts: the Upper Galilee (, ; , ) and the Lower Galilee (, ; , ). ''Galilee'' encompasses the area north of the Mount Carmel-Mount Gilboa ridge and ...

and Perea in 40 following the disgrace of his uncle,

Herod Antipas Herod Antipas (, ''Hērṓidēs Antípas''; ) was a 1st-century ruler of Galilee and Perea. He bore the title of tetrarch ("ruler of a quarter") and is referred to as both "Herod the Tetrarch" and "King Herod" in the New Testament. He was a s ...

. After the assassination of Caligula, he played a leading role in Rome to the accession of Claudius to becoming the head of the empire in 41, and he was endowed with the former territories of Herod Archelaus ( Idumea, Judea and

Samaria Samaria (), the Hellenized form of the Hebrew name Shomron (), is used as a historical and Hebrew Bible, biblical name for the central region of the Land of Israel. It is bordered by Judea to the south and Galilee to the north. The region is ...

) thus ruling over a territory as vast as the kingdom of Herod the Great. Carrying a dual Jewish and Roman identity, he played the role of intercessor on behalf of the Jews with the Roman authorities and, on the domestic level, gave hope to some of his Jewish subjects of the restoration of an independent kingdom. Pursuing the Herodian policy of euergetism through major works in several Greek cities of the Near East, he nevertheless alienated some of his Greek and Syrian subjects while his regional ambitions earned him the opposition of Marsus, the legate of Roman Syria. Agrippa I died suddenly—possibly poisoned—in 44. He is traditionally identified as the king simply named Herod whose death is recounted in Acts 12 ().

Biography

Origins

Family

Herod Agrippa I was born in

Caesarea Maritima Caesarea () also Caesarea Maritima, Caesarea Palaestinae or Caesarea Stratonis, was an ancient and medieval port city on the coast of the eastern Mediterranean, and later a small fishing village. It was the capital of Judaea (Roman province), ...

around 11 BC. He was the son of

Aristobulus IV Aristobulus IV (31–7 BC) was a prince of Judea from the Herodian dynasty, and was married to his cousin, Berenice (daughter of Salome), Berenice, daughter of Costobarus and Salome I. He was the son of Herod the Great and his second wife, Mariamn ...

, one of the children that

had with Mariamne the Hasmonean. His mother was Berenice, daughter of

Salome Salome (; , related to , "peace"; ), also known as Salome III, was a Jews, Jewish princess, the daughter of Herod II and princess Herodias. She was granddaughter of Herod the Great and stepdaughter of Herod Antipas. She is known from the New T ...

, daughter of Antipater and sister of Herod the Great.. Herod the Great was therefore both the paternal grandfather and the maternal great-uncle of Agrippa. His parents marked the Roman status of this Jewish prince by giving him the name of a close collaborator of Emperor

Augustus Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian (), was the founder of the Roman Empire, who reigned as the first Roman emperor from 27 BC until his death in A ...

Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (; BC – 12 BC) was a Roman general, statesman and architect who was a close friend, son-in-law and lieutenant to the Roman emperor Augustus. Agrippa is well known for his important military victories, notably the B ...

. Herod the Great, a ruler perceived as a ruthless usurper by his subjects, was a devoted supporter of the

Roman Empire The Roman Empire ruled the Mediterranean and much of Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. The Roman people, Romans conquered most of this during the Roman Republic, Republic, and it was ruled by emperors following Octavian's assumption of ...

and promoted its cause throughout his kingdom. His reign was characterized by violence and numerous family intrigues as he had 10 wives.. In 29 BC, Herod executed his wife Mariamne,. Agrippa I's grandmother, out of jealousy.. The following year, he executed Agrippa's mother Berenice. In 7 BC, when Agrippa I was just three or four years old,. Herod had Agrippa I's father Aristobulus IV and uncle

Alexander Alexander () is a male name of Greek origin. The most prominent bearer of the name is Alexander the Great, the king of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia who created one of the largest empires in ancient history. Variants listed here ar ...

executed following more palace intrigues. These events also led to the executions of Antipater, a son Herod had with Doris, and Costobarus, Agrippa I's maternal grandfather, three years later.. Herod was responsible for the deaths of numerous members of the

Hasmonean dynasty The Hasmonean dynasty (; ''Ḥašmōnāʾīm''; ) was a ruling dynasty of Judea and surrounding regions during the Hellenistic times of the Second Temple period (part of classical antiquity), from BC to 37 BC. Between and BC the dynasty rule ...

and its supporters, almost wiping them out entirely. However, he spared the children of Aristobulus, including Agrippa I, Herod, and Aristobulus Minor as well as the daughters

Herodias Herodias (; , ''Hērōidiás''; c. 15 BC – after AD 39) was a princess of the Herodian dynasty of Judea, Judaea during the time of the Roman Empire. Christian writings connect her with the Beheading of John the Baptist, execution of John the Ba ...

and Mariamne. Agrippa I thus descends from both the Hasmonean and Herodian dynasties, but his father's death sentence for treason seems to set him aside from a logic of succession.

Imperial court

In 5 BC, two years after the condemnation of his father, the young Agrippa I was sent by Herod the Great to the imperial court of Rome in the company of Berenice as well as his brothers and sisters.. He was supported there by his mother's friend

Antonia Minor Antonia Minor (31 January 36 BC – 1 May 37 AD) was the younger of two surviving daughters of Mark Antony and Octavia Minor. She was a niece of the Emperor Augustus, sister-in-law of the Emperor Tiberius, paternal grandmother of ...

(sister-in-law of

– who would become emperor in 14 – and mother of the future emperor

) as well as by Empress

Livia Livia Drusilla (30 January 59 BC AD 29) was List of Roman and Byzantine empresses, Roman empress from 27 BC to AD 14 as the wife of Augustus, the first Roman emperor. She was known as Julia Augusta after her formal Adoption ...

, who was the friend of his grandmother. Agrippa I grew up in Rome with the children of the

imperial family A royal family is the immediate family of monarch, monarchs and sometimes their extended family. The term imperial family appropriately describes the family of an emperor or emperor, empress, and the term papal family describes the family of ...

, including Drusus, the young son of Tiberius, to whom he was particularly attached, and Tiberius' nephew Claudius, who was the same age as Agrippa I. He thus lived all his youth in the capital of the empire and personally knew almost all the members of the imperial family. At that time, Agrippa I's future appeared to be secured by his privileged relationship with Drusus (the heir apparent of Tiberius) and Claudius. As young men, Agrippa I and his friends Claudius and Drusus had a reputation for immorality and excess.. Agrippa I went into debt as a result of this sumptuous life and received significant financial assistance from his uncle

. But Agrippa I's future darkened with the death of Drusus in 23,. isolating him and leaving him helpless in the face of his creditors,. especially since Berenice probably died at the same time. After the death of his son, the distraught Tiberius reacted by removing Agrippa I and Claudius from his court..

Return to Judea

Agrippa I squandered the rest of his fortune trying to win the favor of the

freedmen A freedman or freedwoman is a person who has been released from slavery, usually by legal means. Historically, slaves were freed by manumission (granted freedom by their owners), emancipation (granted freedom as part of a larger group), or self- ...

of Tiberius,. and he hastily left Rome for the province of Judaea. In Judaea he experienced various adventures and scandals linked to the need to ensure his lifestyle without enjoying the corresponding income. Around 26, Agrippa married his cousin Cypros (daughter of Phasael, son of the tetrarch Phasael) who gave him a son named

.. Agrippa I and Cypros lived in a fortress in Malatha of Idumea where they led a modest existence, far from the splendor of the imperial court. Cypros got along well with

, the wife of Herod Antipas, who encouraged Antipas to continue to help Agrippa I. Antipas provided him with money, offered to settle Agrippa I and his family in

Tiberias Tiberias ( ; , ; ) is a city on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee in northern Israel. A major Jewish center during Late Antiquity, it has been considered since the 16th century one of Judaism's Four Holy Cities, along with Jerusalem, Heb ...

, and appointed him as the ''

agoranomos An agoranomos (, plural: ''agoranomoi'', ἀγορανόμοι) was an elected official in the cities of Ancient Greece and Byzantine Empire, responsible for order in the marketplace (''agora'', hence the name, translated as "market overseer"). A ' ...

'' (organizer of the ''

agora The agora (; , romanized: ', meaning "market" in Modern Greek) was a central public space in ancient Ancient Greece, Greek polis, city-states. The literal meaning of the word "agora" is "gathering place" or "assembly". The agora was the center ...

'') of the city, which provided him with a regular income. However, this situation was short-lived. Agrippa I accepted at first, but he soon gave the impression of not being satisfied with what was given to him. He quickly found this burden boring in a small provincial town devoid of the amenities of the Roman civilization which he had become accustomed. He quarreled with Antipas during a banquet in Tyre and then went to

Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...

, of which his friend Lucius Pomponius Flaccus was the legate. Shortly after, he was disgraced following an intervention by his brother Aristobulus Minor, who denounced him to Flaccus for having received a bribe to defend the interests of

Damascus Damascus ( , ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in the Levant region by population, largest city of Syria. It is the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. Kno ...

against

Sidon Sidon ( ) or better known as Saida ( ; ) is the third-largest city in Lebanon. It is located on the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean coast in the South Governorate, Lebanon, South Governorate, of which it is the capital. Tyre, Lebanon, Tyre, t ...

in a border dispute brought before his legate friend. Agrippa I then decided to attempt a return to Rome where Tiberius might agree to receive his son's old friends again..

Back to Rome

Agrippa I borrowed the sum of 20,000

drachmas Drachma may refer to: * Ancient drachma, an ancient Greek currency * Modern drachma, a modern Greek currency (1833...2002) * Cretan drachma, currency of the former Cretan State * Drachma proctocomys, moth species, the only species in the Genus '' ...

. to embark at Anthedon for

Alexandria Alexandria ( ; ) is the List of cities and towns in Egypt#Largest cities, second largest city in Egypt and the List of coastal settlements of the Mediterranean Sea, largest city on the Mediterranean coast. It lies at the western edge of the Nile ...

, after having been reminded by the Roman governor of

Yavne Yavne () is a city in the Central District (Israel), Central District of Israel. In 2022, it had a population of 56,232. Modern Yavne was established in 1949. It is located near the ruins of the ancient town of Yibna (known also as Jamnia and Jab ...

, Herennius Capiton, for the debts contracted vis-à-vis the treasury of the empire. Herennius sent him the troop, but taking advantage of the night, Agrippa I embarked and managed to reach Alexandria where he obtained new funding from the alabarch Alexander Lysimachus, brother of

Philo Philo of Alexandria (; ; ; ), also called , was a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher who lived in Alexandria, in the Roman province of Egypt. The only event in Philo's life that can be decisively dated is his representation of the Alexandrian J ...

and head of the Jewish community of Alexandria. This senior official, belonging to a Jewish family of Roman citizens, was a large landowner and, like Agrippa I, a friend of Claudius. Lysimachus refused to lend the money directly to Agrippa I, whose reputation for profligacy was well established. It was with his capital of 200,000 drachmas that Agrippa embarked for Italy in the spring of 36. Tiberius, retired to

Capri Capri ( , ; ) is an island located in the Tyrrhenian Sea off the Sorrento Peninsula, on the south side of the Gulf of Naples in the Campania region of Italy. A popular resort destination since the time of the Roman Republic, its natural beauty ...

, received Agrippa I and gave his son's former companion a warm welcome, which was soon tempered by a letter from the governor of Yavne about his debts. But

helped Agrippa I to get out of this new embarrassment by advancing him the totality of the sum due.—300,000 drachmas—and Agrippa I regained imperial favour. All these details are found in the second work of

Josephus Flavius Josephus (; , ; ), born Yosef ben Mattityahu (), was a Roman–Jewish historian and military leader. Best known for writing '' The Jewish War'', he was born in Jerusalem—then part of the Roman province of Judea—to a father of pr ...

, the ''

Antiquities of the Jews ''Antiquities of the Jews'' (; , ''Ioudaikē archaiologia'') is a 20-volume historiographical work, written in Greek, by the Roman-Jewish historian Josephus in the 13th year of the reign of the Roman emperor Domitian, which was 94 CE. It cont ...

'', published around 93/94, during the reign of

Domitian Domitian ( ; ; 24 October 51 – 18 September 96) was Roman emperor from 81 to 96. The son of Vespasian and the younger brother of Titus, his two predecessors on the throne, he was the last member of the Flavian dynasty. Described as "a r ...

,. but in book II of '' The Jewish War'', his first account, published between 75–79, Josephus was more direct. It was "to accuse the tetrarch""Agrippa, fils de cet Aristobule que son père Hérode avait mis à mort, se rendit auprès de Tibère pour accuser le tétrarque Hérode (Antipas). L'empereur n'ayant pas accueilli l'accusation, Agrippa resta à Rome pour faire sa cour aux gens considérables et tout particulièrement à Gaius, fils de Germanicus" ;

, '' The Jewish War'', livre II, IX, 5 (178). Herod Antipas, that Agrippa I decided to go "to Tiberius", in order to try to take his domain, Gilbert Picard, « La date de naissance de Jésus du point de vue romain », dans ''Comptes-rendus des séances de l'Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres'', 139 (3), 1995, . and it was because Agrippa I had been ousted from his pretensions to obtain the tetrarchy of Antipas that he would have started plotting against the emperor. Like other information about Agrippa, these are not found in the Judaic texts, whereas Josephus expands much on the subject. The emperor asked Agrippa I to take charge of Drusus' son, his grandson Tiberius Gemellus, then a teenager and one of the two designated heirs of Tiberius with his grand-nephew Caius Caligula, grandson of the protector of Agrippa I, Antonia. Antonia undertook to win the favors and friendship of Caius, imitated in this by another prince without a kingdom, Antiochos of Commagene, and managed to contract a loan of one million drachmas from a Samaritan freedman of the emperor to carry out his project with the rising star of Rome. Although the conditions are unknown under which the friendship between the two men was forged, it must have been worth such an investment. A flattery from Agrippa I to Caligula however caused him trouble: wishing in a conversation that the death of Tiberius would not be delayed any longer so that the young prince could succeed him, this remark was reported to Tiberius who ordered the arrest of Agrippa I. Agrippa I enjoyed a comfortable captivity and was released by Caligula shortly after the death of Tiberius on 16 March 37, when

Pontius Pilate Pontius Pilate (; ) was the Roman administration of Judaea (AD 6–135), fifth governor of the Judaea (Roman province), Roman province of Judaea, serving under Emperor Tiberius from 26/27 to 36/37 AD. He is best known for being the official wh ...

arrived in Rome.. The accession to the throne of his friend began Agrippa I's fortune. Caligula offered Agrippa I a gold chain "of the same weight as the chain of his captivity". He granted him, in addition to the title of king and the

diadem A diadem is a Crown (headgear), crown, specifically an ornamental headband worn by monarchs and others as a badge of Monarch, royalty. Overview The word derives from the Ancient Greek, Greek διάδημα ''diádēma'', "band" or "fillet", fro ...

which was its sign, the territories of

, who had died shortly before, tetrarch of Iturea, Trachonitis,

, Gaulanitis, Auranitis and Paneas, located northeast of the lake of Tiberias. Caligula also conferred on him the praetorian ornaments, a dignity which allows certain non-senators to sit among them during public celebrations.. "This completely exceptional reversal of the situation seems to have greatly impressed Agrippa's contemporaries." According to Josephus, after he placed the royal diadem on the head of Agrippa I, Caligula sent Marullus as "hipparch (ἱππάρχης) of Judea" to replace Pontius Pilate, who had been dismissed by Lucius Vitellius and had just arrived in Rome.Daniel R. Schwartz, ''Agrippa I: The Last King of Judaea'', éd. Mohr Siebeck, 1990, . Agrippa I showed no eagerness to take charge of the affairs of his kingdom, and it was only in the summer of 38 that he went to Batanea for a short stay.

Troubles in Judea

During his stay in Rome, several events took place in Judaea which created a very tense situation. Since 35, the Romans and the legate of Syria Lucius Vitellius were engaged in a decisive confrontation against the Parthians and their king Artabanus III about the control of the Kingdom of Armenia.. In 36,There is almost unanimity among historians specializing in the period and the region in following the chronological indications provided by Flavius Josephus and situating this battle in 36; see Simon Claude Mimouni, Ancient Judaism from the 6th century BC to the 3rd century AD: From priests to rabbis, ed. P.u.f./New Clio, 2012, p. 407; Christian-Georges Schwentzel, Herod the Great, Pygmalion, Paris, 2011, p. 216-217; E. Mary Smallwood, The Jews under Roman Rule, p. 189; Lester L. Grabbe, Judaism from Cyrus to Hadrian, Vol. II, Fortress Press, Minneapolis, 1992, p. 427; Nikkos Kokkinos, in Jack Finegan, Chronos, kairos, Christos: nativity and chronological studies, ed. Jerry Vardaman & Edwin M. Yamauchi, 1989, p. 135. However, to resolve the contradiction between Flavius Josephus who provides indications that place the death of

John the Baptist John the Baptist ( – ) was a Jewish preacher active in the area of the Jordan River in the early first century AD. He is also known as Saint John the Forerunner in Eastern Orthodoxy and Oriental Orthodoxy, John the Immerser in some Baptist ...

around 35 and the Christian tradition which places it in 29, Christiane Saulnier takes up Étienne Nodet's proposal which supposes that Josephus is mistaken and therefore places this battle before 29. This proposal, however, does not meet with great reception among historians, but meets with some success among denominational authors. the armies of two kings who were clients of the Romans, Aretas IV and Herod Antipas, clashed around the territory of Gamla, causing a crushing defeat for Antipas.. According to Movses Khorenatsi, as well as several sources in Syriac and Armenian, King Abgar V of Edessa provided auxiliary forces to Aretas.Ilaria Ramelli, ''Possible Historical Traces in the Doctrina Addai'', § n° 9.. However, the historicity of this mention is disputed by Jean-Pierre Mahé. It is possible that Aretas took advantage of Antipas' participation in the great conference on the Euphrates, to conceal peace and the Roman victory over Artabanus (autumn 36), to launch his offensive.. The territorial claim of the

Nabataeans The Nabataeans or Nabateans (; Nabataean Aramaic: , , vocalized as ) were an ancient Arabs, Arab people who inhabited northern Arabian Peninsula, Arabia and the southern Levant. Their settlements—most prominently the assumed capital city o ...

was revived by Antipas' will to repudiate Phasaélis, the daughter of Aretas,.. to marry

, the sister of Agrippa I.. Antipas' goal was dynastic. It is a question of consolidating his position to be named by the emperor at the head of the tetrarchy of Philip who has just died or to be named king. At some point in this conflict, probably between 29 and 35,.. Antipas attempts to silence his opposition by executing

. This execution seems to have had important repercussions on the political situation in the region for several years. Thus the defeat of Antipas is considered within the Jewish population as a divine revenge against Antipas to punish him for having put John to death and of which Aretas would have been only the instrument. According to Simon Claude Mimouni, the governorship of

was one of the five high points of the troubles that Judea experienced between the death of Herod the Great and the outbreak of the Great Jewish Revolt, punctuated by no less than six major incidents, to which must be added the crucifixion of Jesus of Nazareth and possibly the sedition of Jesus Bar Abbas, whose popularity is reported in the

Synoptic Gospels The gospels of Gospel of Matthew, Matthew, Gospel of Mark, Mark, and Gospel of Luke, Luke are referred to as the synoptic Gospels because they include many of the same stories, often in a similar sequence and in similar or sometimes identical ...

.. However, for some historians, the two Jesuses are one, the evangelists using a literary device to describe two faces of Jesus, while exempting the Romans from their responsibility in this execution, so that the Gospels cannot be suspected of containing the slightest criticism of the authorities in power. Hyam Maccoby, ''Revolution in Judaea: Jesus and the Jewish Resistance'', Taplinger Publishing co, 1980, New-York, .. In 36, Pontius Pilate quickly suppressed a gathering of

Samaritans Samaritans (; ; ; ), are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Hebrews and Israelites of the ancient Near East. They are indigenous to Samaria, a historical region of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah that ...

Mount Gerizim Mount Gerizim ( ; ; ; , or ) is one of two mountains in the immediate vicinity of the State of Palestine, Palestinian city of Nablus and the biblical city of Shechem. It forms the southern side of the valley in which Nablus is situated, the nor ...

.. The gathering had a messianic connotation whose leader—whom Josephus avoids naming—sought to appear as the eschatological prophet similar to

Moses In Abrahamic religions, Moses was the Hebrews, Hebrew prophet who led the Israelites out of slavery in the The Exodus, Exodus from ancient Egypt, Egypt. He is considered the most important Prophets in Judaism, prophet in Judaism and Samaritani ...

,. one of the three messianic figures found in the

Dead Sea Scrolls The Dead Sea Scrolls, also called the Qumran Caves Scrolls, are a set of List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts, ancient Jewish manuscripts from the Second Temple period (516 BCE – 70 CE). They were discovered over a period of ten years, between ...

.. A figure that has also been attributed to John the Baptist and Jesus the Nazorean. Certain

Church Fathers The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, Christian Fathers, or Fathers of the Church were ancient and influential Christian theologians and writers who established the intellectual and doctrinal foundations of Christianity. The historical peri ...

, as well as the Mandaean tradition and in particular one of their writings, the ''Haran-Gawaita'', provide indications according to which it could be Dositheos of Samaria who succeeded to the head of the movement of John the Baptist after his execution, for he was one of his disciples. Pilate crucified their leaders and the most prominent personalities that he managed to capture.. At the end of 36, Vitellius used the complaints of the Council of Samaritans about this incident as a pretext to dismiss Pilate at the end of a ten-year term. so that he explains to the emperor what the Jews are accusing him of.. On the following Passover, he came in person to Jerusalem to dismiss the high priest Caiaphas, who was too closely linked to Pilate, and restored to the priests of the temple the supervision of the ceremonies of the Jewish worship festivals. When the death of Tiberius was announced at

Pentecost Pentecost (also called Whit Sunday, Whitsunday or Whitsun) is a Christianity, Christian holiday which takes place on the 49th day (50th day when inclusive counting is used) after Easter Day, Easter. It commemorates the descent of the Holy Spiri ...

in 37, Vitellius, reluctant to support Antipas with his troops,. interrupted the march of his two legions against Aretas, considering that he could no longer wage war without orders from the new emperor.. He made the people swear loyalty to Caligula and once again dismissed the high priest whom he had appointed 50 days earlier..

Establishment of the kingdom

Agrippa I returned to his territories in the summer of 38. Josephus does not recount the conditions under which the Nabataean troops withdrew from the former tetrarchy of Philip, which constituted the bulk of the territories attributed to Agrippa I. In an agreement between Aretas and Caligula,

was transferred to Nabathean control.. On the way to his new kingdom, Agrippa I passed through

around July 38 where he probably lodged with the alabarch Alexander Lysimachus, the brother of Philo of Alexandria and the father of Tiberius Alexander.

Heinrich Graetz Heinrich Graetz (; 31 October 1817 – 7 September 1891) was a German exegete and one of the first historians to write a comprehensive history of the Jewish people from a Jewish perspective. Born Tzvi Hirsch Graetz to a butcher family in Xions (no ...

, ''Histoire des Juifs'', Chapter XV — Les Hérodiens : Agrippa Ier ; Hérode II — (37-49). whose daughter Berenice would marry the son Marcus Alexander a few years later. There was then an anti-Jewish atmosphere in the city that had lasted for some time.. During festivities, Agrippa was the target of a popular anti-Jewish masquerade featuring an "idiot" nicknamed Karabas,Some critics see this in the parody as a reference to the crucifixion of

Jesus Jesus (AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ, Jesus of Nazareth, and many Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament, other names and titles, was a 1st-century Jewish preacher and religious leader. He is the Jesus in Chris ...

because it resembles in many ways what was done to one of the two Jesuses — Jésus Barabbas and/or Jesus the King of the Jews — in the accounts of the Passion contained in the

Gospels Gospel originally meant the Christian message (" the gospel"), but in the second century AD the term (, from which the English word originated as a calque) came to be used also for the books in which the message was reported. In this sen ...

. The very name by which the actors of this parody call their victim ('' Karabbas'') makes one think of Barabbas, the

alter ego An alter ego (Latin for "other I") means an alternate Self (psychology), self, which is believed to be distinct from a person's normal or true original Personality psychology, personality. Finding one's alter ego will require finding one's other ...

Jesus Christ Jesus (AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ, Jesus of Nazareth, and many Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament, other names and titles, was a 1st-century Jewish preacher and religious leader. He is the Jesus in Chris ...

in these stories. This proximity is both phonetic and graphic. Especially since in ancient Christian texts the nicknames or ''

cognomen A ''cognomen'' (; : ''cognomina''; from ''co-'' "together with" and ''(g)nomen'' "name") was the third name of a citizen of ancient Rome, under Roman naming conventions. Initially, it was a nickname, but lost that purpose when it became hereditar ...

'' ''Barsabas'' and ''Barabbas'' are often connected to the names of members of the family of Jesus, such as the brother of Jesus called Joseph Barsabbas or the one called Judas who in the Codex Bezae of the

Acts of the Apostles The Acts of the Apostles (, ''Práxeis Apostólōn''; ) is the fifth book of the New Testament; it tells of the founding of the Christian Church and the spread of The gospel, its message to the Roman Empire. Acts and the Gospel of Luke make u ...

is even nicknamed Judas Barabbas , while in current versions he is named Judas Barsabas, or as the fourth bishop of Jerusalem after the death of Simeon of Clopas also called Judas Barsabas and given as a son of James the Just, the brother of Jesus. Furthermore, this event takes place in August 38, less than months after

was fired by Lucius Vitellius "to explain himself to the emperor". Like for Jesus, the surnamed Karabas is given a chlamys or a mat as a royal garment, an improvised crown on his head and a reed is given to him as a scepter, then those who impose this masquerade on him derisively pretend to consider him like a king. Moreover, the title which is given to the surnamed Karabbas by these Greek inhabitants of Alexandria is singularly an

Aramaic Aramaic (; ) is a Northwest Semitic language that originated in the ancient region of Syria and quickly spread to Mesopotamia, the southern Levant, Sinai, southeastern Anatolia, and Eastern Arabia, where it has been continually written a ...

and Syriac word, that of ''Maran'' which translates as "Lord", title which is very often given to Jesus in the

gospels Gospel originally meant the Christian message (" the gospel"), but in the second century AD the term (, from which the English word originated as a calque) came to be used also for the books in which the message was reported. In this sen ...

. The current language in Judea at the time being Syriac, it is this same word of “Maran” which was to be pronounced by the disciples of Jesus to give him the title of Lord. Finally, this masquerade was intended to make fun of Agrippa I^st, the new Jewish king whom

has just named, passing through Alexandria on his way to his territories, while Jesus was condemned for having proclaimed himself "King of the Jews" or for having been so by his followers. foreshadowing the Jewish-Alexandrian conflict that agitated the city from 38 to 41. These troubles led the two parties—Jews and Alexandrian

Greeks Greeks or Hellenes (; , ) are an ethnic group and nation native to Greece, Greek Cypriots, Cyprus, Greeks in Albania, southern Albania, Greeks in Turkey#History, Anatolia, parts of Greeks in Italy, Italy and Egyptian Greeks, Egypt, and to a l ...

—to each send three delegates to the emperor to settle the deeper conflict between the two communities. Philo was one of the Jewish delegation. The return of Agrippa I excited the jealousy of his sister Herodias who urged her husband Antipas to claim for himself the title of king in Rome. In 39, Antipas resolved to meet Caligula to try to obtain this imperial favor, which precipitated his loss. Informed of this trip, Agrippa dispatched his most faithful freedman to Rome, bearing a letter for the emperor, followed soon after by Agrippa I himself.Again, in The Jewish War, Josephus gives a different version. “Agrippa had followed” Antipas to Rome “to accuse him” and thus obtained his dismissal. What he fails to relate in the Jewish Antiquities written 20 years later. In the letter he accuses Antipas of fomenting a plot with the Parthians and of having accumulated, without informing the emperor, stocks of arms in his arsenals in Tiberias, probably with the intention of preparing his revenge against Aretas who had defeated him a few years earlier. While the second accusation is probably true, the first is doubtful. As a result of the letter, Caligula exiled Antipas to the south of

Gaul Gaul () was a region of Western Europe first clearly described by the Roman people, Romans, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and parts of Switzerland, the Netherlands, Germany, and Northern Italy. It covered an area of . Ac ...

and Herodias followed.. As for Agrippa I, he received the territories of Antipas—

and

Peraea Peraia, and Peraea or Peræa (from , ''hē peraia'', "land across") in Classical Antiquity referred to "a community's territory lying 'opposite', predominantly (but not exclusively) a mainland possession of an island state" according to Karl-Wilhe ...

—as well as all the property confiscated from Antipas and Herodias.

Statue of Caligula

Following the clashes between Jews and Greeks in Alexandria, for confused reasons the delegation led by Philo of Alexandria to Caligula learned "with horror" of the emperor's project to erect his own statue in the Temple of Jerusalem in gold under the guise of Zeus. According to Josephus, it is possible that the emperor was sensitive to the arguments of the delegation of Greeks from Alexandria led by Apion who, in the conflict between the two parties, complained of the "privileges" granted to the Jews. For the Jewish historian Goodman, Caligula intended to develop the

imperial cult An imperial cult is a form of state religion in which an emperor or a dynasty of emperors (or rulers of another title) are worshipped as demigods or deities. "Cult (religious practice), Cult" here is used to mean "worship", not in the modern pejor ...

and to place himself above the politics of mortals in his lifetime and had the idea of imposing his divine status on the empire, whatever the political consequences.. Caligula's initiative horrified the Jewish subjects of the empire and caused unrest in the diaspora in Rome as well as in

Thessaloniki Thessaloniki (; ), also known as Thessalonica (), Saloniki, Salonika, or Salonica (), is the second-largest city in Greece (with slightly over one million inhabitants in its Thessaloniki metropolitan area, metropolitan area) and the capital cit ...

Antioch Antioch on the Orontes (; , ) "Antioch on Daphne"; or "Antioch the Great"; ; ; ; ; ; ; . was a Hellenistic Greek city founded by Seleucus I Nicator in 300 BC. One of the most important Greek cities of the Hellenistic period, it served as ...

and in

,According to Étienne Nodet and Justin Taylor then François Blanchetière, it was during this agitation that the term “Christian” appeared, coined by the Romans to designate similar protesting Messianic Jews to the

zealots The Zealots were members of a Jewish political movements, Jewish political movement during the Second Temple period who sought to incite the people of Judaea (Roman province), Judaea to rebel against the Roman Empire and expel it from the Land ...

; see Étienne Nodet and Justin Taylor, ''Essay on the origins of Christianity: an exploded sect'', ed. Cerf, 1998, ; François Blanchetière, ''Enquête sur les racines juives du mouvement chrétien (30-135)'', ed. Cerf, 2001, . particularly in

.. Caligula enjoined the

proconsul A proconsul was an official of ancient Rome who acted on behalf of a Roman consul, consul. A proconsul was typically a former consul. The term is also used in recent history for officials with delegated authority. In the Roman Republic, military ...

of Syria, Publius Petronius, to place the statue willingly or by force in the "

Holy of Holies The Holy of Holies ( or ''Kodesh HaKodashim''; also ''hadDəḇīr'', 'the Sanctuary') is a term in the Hebrew Bible that refers to the inner sanctuary of the Tabernacle, where the Shekhinah (God in Judaism, God's presence) appeared. According ...

" of the Temple of Jerusalem,. violating Judaic

aniconism Aniconism is the cultural absence of artistic representations ('' icons'') of the natural and supernatural worlds, or it is the absence of representations of certain figures in religions. The prohibition of material representations may only extend ...

in the holiest place of this religion. Petronius disposes necessary armed troops—two Roman legions and auxiliaries—which he barracks at Ptolemais in Phoenicia in the event of an uprising, and his mission was to accompany the procession of the statue—being made in

—through Judea.Monika Bernett, « Roman Imperial Cult in the Galilee », in Jürgen Zangenberg, Harold W. Attridge et Dale B. Martin (dirs.), ''Religion, Ethnicity, and Identity in Ancient Galilee : A Region in Transition'', éd. Mohr Siebeck, 2007, . The population rushed in numbers to Ptolemais, supported by the Jewish religious authorities, then to

where the troubles continued for about 40 days.. Petronius met with Aristobulus brother of Agrippa I (Agrippa I was in Rome at the time) in the presence and under the pressure of the crowd. Convinced of the imminence of a major revolt, Petronius tempered with the emperor by an exchange of letters exposing—at the risk of his life—the difficulties of the situation:. the inhabitants of Galilee were close to a revolt, and the Judeans were at risk of setting fire to the crops just before harvesting, while preparing for war. The emperor's first response was fairly moderate, but some sources report a “furious” response from Caligula to Petronius, not considering any compromise. While Agrippa I was in RomeAccording to

Cassius Dio Lucius Cassius Dio (), also known as Dio Cassius ( ), was a Roman historian and senator of maternal Greek origin. He published 80 volumes of the history of ancient Rome, beginning with the arrival of Aeneas in Italy. The volumes documented the ...

, Agrippa I had a very bad reputation among the Romans. In the''Roman History'', summarized by the monk John Xiphilinus in the 9th century, it is written: "these miseries were less painful for the Romans than the expectation of an increase in cruelty and intemperance on the part of Caius (

), especially because it was learned that he was intimately connected with kings Agrippa and Antiochus, as teachers of tyranny", Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', book LIX, 24. it is possible he learned of the affair from Caligula, which plunged him into a conflict between his two identities, Jewish and Roman. After a few days of reflection, he took the side of his Jewish compatriots in the defense of the Temple threatened with desecration:. for Josephus, it was a discussion during a banquet; for Philo, it was a request addressed to the emperor, the content of which he reports, although in terms that reveal a certain exaggeration of the role of Agrippa.. Agrippa I pleaded "that the ancestral institutions are not disturbed. For what of my reputation among my countrymen and other men? Either I must be considered a traitor to myself or I must cease to be counted among your friends; there is no other choice…”. At first, Caligula seemed to give in to his friend's pleas and instructed Petronius to suspend his action towards Jerusalem, while warning the Jewish populations not to take any action against the shrines, statues and altars erected in his honor, as a reproduction of Caligula's letter by Josephus seems to attest. But the emperor seemed to reconsider his decision and it was the murder of Caligula that seemed to put a definitive end to the enterprise and put an end to the desire for a popular uprising. Josephus recounts how the emperor, suspecting Petronius of having been bribed to break his orders, ordered him to commit suicide, but this letter arrived after the announcement of Caligula's death, in which Josephus saw an effect of Providence. This temporary success of Agrippa I testifies to the close relations which bound him with the most important personalities of the Roman world, which was confirmed during the succession of the assassinated emperor.

Death of Caligula and installation of Claudius

On January 24, 41, Caligula was assassinated by a large-scale conspiracy, notably involving the praetorian commander Cassius Chaerea as well as several senators. The conspirators intended to return to a republic.. Yet it was Claudius, Caligula's uncle, who was pushed to imperial power by the anti-republicans under curious conditions at the center of which Agrippa I gravitated. Claudius was certainly erudite but nevertheless excessively shy, afflicted with a physical handicap and without particular ambition. The support of his childhood friend,. as well as his maneuvers, seem to have been decisive in his ascent to power. Josephus and Roman historian

both state that Agrippa I indeed played a significant role in the choice of the new emperor. It was he who led a squad of the

Praetorian Guard The Praetorian Guard (Latin language, Latin: ''cohortes praetoriae'') was the imperial guard of the Imperial Roman army that served various roles for the Roman emperor including being a bodyguard unit, counterintelligence, crowd control and ga ...

to the palace in search of Claudius, who had hidden there for fear of being assassinated. It was also at his instigation that the praetorians proclaimed Claudius emperor because without a sovereign, the guard lost its ''raison d'être''.. He then went to the Capitol where the senators met in conclave and acted as intermediaries between them and Claudius. He inspired Claudius with a response to the senators, "in conformity with the dignity of his power," and he persuaded them to wisely abandon their idea of a republic, arguing that a new emperor has been proclaimed by the praetorians—of whom he pointed out that 'they surround the meeting"—and expected nothing but their enthusiastic support. The senators proclaimed Claudius emperor, and Agrippa I recommended that Claudius be lenient vis-à-vis the conspirators, except for the regicides Cassius Chaerea and Lupus. Royaume Agrippa Ier

If these stories are to be believed, this episode made Claudius obligated by his childhood friend, and this devotion earned him a sizeable reward: Agrippa I saw his possessions increased by most of the ancient kingdom of

Herod Archelaus Herod Archelaus (, ''Hērōidēs Archelaos''; 23 BC – ) was the ethnarch of Samaria, Judea, and Idumea, including the cities Caesarea Maritima, Caesarea and Jaffa, for nine years (). He was the son of Herod the Great and Malthace the ...

—

, Idumea and

—but also the city of Abila in Anti-Lebanon so that he reigned over a territory as vast as that of his grandfather Herod the Great. According to Cassius Dio, Claudius also granted his friend consular rank and authorized him "to appear in the senate and express his gratitude in Greek". To mark the considerable status of Agrippa I, a treaty was ratified with the Senate and the people of Rome on the Forum,. which took up the old treaties of friendship and Judeo-Roman alliance. Agrippa I was declared there ''rex amicus et socius Populi Romani''—as his grandfather had been in 40 BC.—and the text is preserved on bronze tablets in the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus.. Soon after his inauguration, Agrippa I embarked for Judaea. It was the same year that Berenice, daughter of Agrippa I, united under the patronage of the emperor to Marcus, the son of the alabarch of Alexandria, Alexander Lysimachus whom Claudius had freed from the captivity to which the reduced Caligula. Claudius' accession to the throne also marked the restoration of several other kingdoms in Asia Minor. Agrippa I's brother Herod of Chalcis received a royal title, was granted the principality of

Chalcis Chalcis (; Ancient Greek and Katharevousa: , ), also called Chalkida or Halkida (Modern Greek: , ), is the chief city of the island of Euboea or Evia in Greece, situated on the Euripus Strait at its narrowest point. The name is preserved from ...

(previously attached to the kingdom of Iturea.) and was honored in Rome with the title of praetor. He would marry his niece, Bérénice, after the premature death of her young husband.

Reign

Judaism in the empire

An edict by Claudius recalls the privileges granted to Alexandrian Jews who lived according to their laws,. and a second edict extended the Alexandrian privileges to the Jews of the diaspora throughout the whole empire.. Agrippa I and his brother Herod of Chalcis played the role of intercessor in favor of the Jews with the emperor. These favors also extended to all the Jewish communities of the empire. They also had the status of censors of Jewish morals: they ensured respect for the Torah by the communities of the

diaspora A diaspora ( ) is a population that is scattered across regions which are separate from its geographic place of birth, place of origin. The word is used in reference to people who identify with a specific geographic location, but currently resi ...

. A few months after the murder of Caligula, inhabitants of the Phoenician city of Dôra (south of

Mount Carmel Mount Carmel (; ), also known in Arabic as Mount Mar Elias (; ), is a coastal mountain range in northern Israel stretching from the Mediterranean Sea towards the southeast. The range is a UNESCO biosphere reserve. A number of towns are situat ...

) introduced a statue of Claudius into the main

synagogue A synagogue, also called a shul or a temple, is a place of worship for Jews and Samaritans. It is a place for prayer (the main sanctuary and sometimes smaller chapels) where Jews attend religious services or special ceremonies such as wed ...

of the city. For all those who stood up against Caligula's plan to erect his statue in the Temple of Jerusalem, it was a real provocation. Agrippa I intervened immediately and asked for the application of the decree of Claudius.. He acted here as an

ethnarch Ethnarch (pronounced , also ethnarches, ) is a term that refers generally to political leadership over a common ethnic group or homogeneous kingdom. The word is derived from the Greek language, Greek words (''Ethnic group, ethnos'', "tribe/nation ...

of the Jews, since Dora was not located on his territory. Petronius, the

immediately ordered the magistrates of Dora to remove the statue, referring to the edict of Claudius. However, this openness must be put into perspective, which is also reflected in the measures to limit worship against the Jews of Rome, as Cassius Dio reports (History, 60, 6, 6–7),. perhaps in reaction to the agitation resulting from the rapid development of the movement of the followers of

and which would be evoked by the Letter of Claudius to the Alexandrians. For François Blanchetière, the writing of Philo Legation to Caïus "constitutes an apology for

, to be read a contrario as a criticism of the Judeophobic policy of Claudius (Legation to Caius 155–158)".

Administration of the kingdom

Claudius probably saw in the appointment of Agrippa I—heir to the Herodians and the Hasmoneans but also attached to the Julio-Claudians by personal relations—a factor of stability which could rid the imperial administration of the management of a province with endemic troubles. Agrippa I clearly inherited his grandfather's splendor and his desire for recognition beyond his borders.. Internally, he tried to satisfy both his Jewish and pagan subjects and was divided between his religious capital, Jerusalem, and his "little Rome", Caesarea. He also undertook the major project of raising the ramparts of his historic capital and extending it to the northern district thanks to funding from the Temple treasury, which gave some of his Jewish subjects hope for the restoration of an independent kingdom. or at least a rediscovered form of sovereignty.. He continued the policy of euergetism external to Judea of Herod the Great by financing the construction of prestigious works (theatre, amphitheater and baths) in liberalities which mainly benefited the Roman colony of

Berytus Berytus (; ; ; ; ), briefly known as Laodicea in Phoenicia (; ) or Laodicea in Canaan from the 2nd century to 64 BCE, was the ancient city of Beirut (in modern-day Lebanon) from the Roman Republic through the Roman Empire and late antiquity, Ear ...

, without forgetting however the cities of Phoenicia and Syria. He also offered shows and games, notably with

gladiator A gladiator ( , ) was an armed combatant who entertained audiences in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire in violent confrontations with other gladiators, wild animals, and condemned criminals. Some gladiators were volunteers who risked their ...

s, even if this contravened Jewish prescriptions, which he got accepted by using condemned criminals. On a religious level, as soon as he arrived, Agrippa I forged the reputation of a pious man, as attested by the

Mishnah The Mishnah or the Mishna (; , from the verb ''šānā'', "to study and review", also "secondary") is the first written collection of the Jewish oral traditions that are known as the Oral Torah. Having been collected in the 3rd century CE, it is ...

, which recounts an orchestrated ceremony where the king was acclaimed and obtained the legitimacy of the priests in the Temple of Jerusalem while his grandfather Herod had never been admitted to the third court of the Temple. However, through his grandmother, Mariamne the Hasmonean, Agrippa I belonged to a priestly family, which Herod did not. He was thus the first Herodo-Hasmonean to participate in a Temple office since the dismissal of the

Antigonus II Mattathias Antigonus II Mattathias ( ''Antígonos''; , ''Mattīṯyāhū''), also known as Antigonus the Hasmonean (died 37 BCE) was the last Hasmonean dynasty, Hasmonean king of Judea. He was the son of King Aristobulus II of Judea. In 37 BCE Herod the Grea ...

, although he did not offer sacrifices.. The Mishnah explains how the Jews of the Second Temple era interpreted the requirement of that the king should read the Torah to the people. At the conclusion of the first day of

Sukkot Sukkot, also known as the Feast of Tabernacles or Feast of Booths, is a Torah-commanded Jewish holiday celebrated for seven days, beginning on the 15th day of the month of Tishrei. It is one of the Three Pilgrimage Festivals on which Israelite ...

immediately after the conclusion of the seventh year in the cycle, they erected a wooden dais in the Temple court, upon which the king sat. The synagogue attendant took a Torah scroll and handed it to the synagogue president, who handed it to the High Priest's deputy, who handed it to the High Priest, who handed it to the king. The king stood and received it, and was to read while seated. King Agrippa stood and received it and read standing, and the sages praised him for doing so. When Agrippa I reached the commandment of that "you may not put a foreigner over you" as king, his eyes ran with tears, but they said to him, "Don't fear, Agrippa, you are our brother, you are our brother!" The king read from up through the shema (), and then the portion regarding tithes (), the portion of the king (), and the blessings and curses (). The king would recite the same blessings as the High Priest, except that the king would substitute a blessing for the

festivals A festival is an event celebrated by a community and centering on some characteristic aspect or aspects of that community and its religion or cultures. It is often marked as a local or national holiday, Melā, mela, or Muslim holidays, eid. A ...

instead of one for the forgiveness of sin.
Mishnah Sotah 7:8
Agrippa I used his prerogative to appoint the high priests of the Temple three times during his short reign, choosing alternately from the priestly dynasties of the Anan and the Boethos. His short administration was thus placed under the domination of Rome, of which he was an instrument of control, and the marks of honor given as sovereign by the Jews to the Temple testify to the "generalized clientelism in which personal friendships administrative relations throughout the empire..

Regional ambitions and unexpected death

Gaius Vibius Marsus, the governor of Syria who succeeded Petronius, was much less favorable to Agrippa I.. He sent a series of letters to Claudius to express his fears of Agrippa I's rising power, reflecting the jealousy of the prince's Roman compatriots in the region. For his part, Agrippa I repeatedly asked the emperor to dismiss Marsus.. Marsus interrupted, on the orders of Claudius, the fortification of Jerusalem and tempered the regional diplomatic ambitions of Agrippa I. Indeed, Agrippa I invited to Tiberias Herod of Chalcis as well as three princes who had been his companions in Rome, Antiochos of Commagene, Cotys of Lesser Armenia and Polemon, king of Pontus. Marsus argued the possibility of a conspiracy. Although it is unlikely that Agrippa I considered breaking with his close Roman protectors and familiars, the kings were enjoined to return to their respective kingdoms without delay.. Agrippa I died unexpectedly in 44, after only three years of reign over Judaea, during the games of Caesarea in honor of the emperor. Patronizing the games, he appeared there in dazzling silver finery in front of the crowd who acclaimed him and compared him to a god, a blasphemous remark for a Jew against which the king did not then protest. Some of his contemporaries read as a divine punishment for this blasphemy the cause of his death which occurred shortly after: according to the

which appears in the

New Testament The New Testament (NT) is the second division of the Christian biblical canon. It discusses the teachings and person of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus, as well as events relating to Christianity in the 1st century, first-century Christianit ...

, an angel, come at the time of the declarations of the people who compared him to a god, struck him, and he was devoured by worms (Acts 12:20–23). Two days later, he was seized with violent abdominal pains and died after five days of agony, at age 53. According to Josephus, before he died he scolded his friends for flattering him, and he accepted his imminent death in a state of teshuva. The precise causes of his death are unknown, but from that time on rumors of poisoning circulated. Several researchers believe that the poisoning by the Romans worried about his excessive political ambitions is likely, even that it was a personal initiative of Marsus to attenuate the hostility of the neighboring Syrian populations. The reign of Agrippa I thus did not last long enough to be able to significantly outline its political orientation. Nevertheless, the hopes of regained sovereignty aroused among the Jews of Judea by his accession did not disappear with his death and were probably part of the causes that led to the Jewish revolt which broke out some 20 years later..

Succession

The death of Agrippa I was celebrated by the pagan populations of the kingdom, in particular in Caesarea and Sebaste, which the sovereign had nevertheless largely favored. The hostility of the Syrian population was also evident in attacks by Syrian auxiliaries on statues of the king's daughters adorning the palace of Caesarea. Rather than entrusting Agrippa I's kingdom to his son Agrippa II—an inexperienced young man who grew up at the imperial court, protected by the emperor—Claudius made it a

Roman province The Roman provinces (, pl. ) were the administrative regions of Ancient Rome outside Roman Italy that were controlled by the Romans under the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire. Each province was ruled by a Roman appointed as Roman g ...

. with Cuspius Fadus as procurator. This decision, along with the unruly conduct of the Syrian auxiliaries, generated renewed unrest in Caesarea and elsewhere. The appointment of the priests and the control of the Temple of Jerusalem passed to Herod of Chalcis, who also became the foremost intermediary between the Jews and the Romans until his death in 48.. For the Jews, these events marked the end of hopes for even a symbolic Jewish independence, and it was then that intransigent factious movements with messianic and anti-Roman connotations appeared. From his union with Cypros, Agrippa I had four children reaching adulthood: a son, Agrippa II, and three daughters, Berenice, Mariamne and Drusilla. Another son, Drusus, died in infancy.

Posterity

Half a century after Agrippa I's sudden death, Josephus evokes the sovereign in these terms: "Agrippa's character was gentle and his benevolence was equal for all. He was full of humanity for people of foreign races and also showed them his liberality, but he was also helpful for his compatriots and showed them even more sympathy". Josephus gives Agrippa a positive legacy and relates that he was known in his time as "Agrippa the Great". In the rabbinical sources, Agrippa is presented as a pious man, and his reign is described positively.. Conversely, the pagan inhabitants of Caesarea and Sebaste organized rejoicings at his death. A significant number of critics follow the Christian tradition to identify Agrippa I with "Herod the king" who, in the Acts of the Apostles, persecutes the community of Jesus' disciples in Jerusalem, then who has James the Great killed "with the sword" while the apostle Peter, later arrested, owes his salvation only to the help of "an angel" who comes by night to help him escape from his prison.. However, the Acts of the Apostles, composed in the 80s and 90s from several sources, "have been the subject of devastating criticism for several decades, to the point of being denied by some, in whole or in part, any historical value". due to the "editorial activity" of its three successive authors.. Thus, the entire Petrine document (hypothetical document) to which these episodes would have belonged seems to have been placed at the beginning of Acts by its first writer, following this account by the "Gesture of Paul" and it is the next writer—perhaps

Luke the Evangelist Luke the Evangelist was one of the Four Evangelists—the four traditionally ascribed authors of the canonical gospels. The Early Church Fathers ascribed to him authorship of both the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles. Prominent figu ...

—which would have been inserted between the two "Gestures" of Peter and Paul, the account of the death of Agrippa. which gives the impression that all that precedes is dated before 44 and all that follows is later, adding a coming of Paul to Jerusalem which does not appear anywhere in Paul's accounts in his epistles. It is therefore possible that "Herod the king" does not designate Agrippa I, but his son Agrippa II. Indeed, in addition to these editorial elements, the chronological inconsistencies of the Acts have been well known for more than a century, in particular the speech of Gamaliel, delivered seven chapters before the account of the death of Agrippa I to defend the apostles during a previous arrest, speaks of the death of Theudas intervened under the procurator Cuspius Fadus (44–46) and in the Gesture of Peter, the murder of James the Great, then the arrest and escape of Peter are later of five chapters to this speech and precedes the account of the death of Agrippa I. This account of the death of Agrippa I, probably inserted by the second redactor of the Acts of the Apostles diverges from that of Josephus but otherwise agrees with him on the divine origin of his mortal illness, occasioned by his impious refusal to reject the deification of which he is the object by the people, perhaps testifying to the use of a common Jewish source..

Family tree

Portrayals

Herod Agrippa I is the protagonist of the Italian opera ''L’Agrippa tetrarca di Gerusalemme'' with music by Giuseppe Maria Buini and libretto by Claudio Nicola Stampa, first performed August 28, 1724 at the Teatro Ducale of

Milan Milan ( , , ; ) is a city in northern Italy, regional capital of Lombardy, the largest city in Italy by urban area and the List of cities in Italy, second-most-populous city proper in Italy after Rome. The city proper has a population of nea ...

.G. Boccaccini, Portraits of Middle Judaism in Scholarship and Arts (Turin: Zamorani, 1992). Agrippa I is a major figure in the

Robert Graves Captain Robert von Ranke Graves (24 July 1895 – 7 December 1985) was an English poet, soldier, historical novelist and critic. His father was Alfred Perceval Graves, a celebrated Irish poet and figure in the Gaelic revival; they were b ...

novel '' Claudius the God'', as well as the BBC television adaptation '' I, Claudius'', portrayed by James Faulkner as an adult and Michael Clements as a child. As Graves depicts Herod, he is a lifelong friend of Claudius, his most lasting and trustworthy advisor. Herod ultimately betrays their trust, raising a rebellion against Rome as the prophesied

Messiah In Abrahamic religions, a messiah or messias (; , ; , ; ) is a saviour or liberator of a group of people. The concepts of '' mashiach'', messianism, and of a Messianic Age originated in Judaism, and in the Hebrew Bible, in which a ''mashiach ...

, much to the dismay of Claudius. Herod is struck down by unexplained illness, sending a final letter to Claudius seeking forgiveness.

Notes and references

Explanatory notes

Citations

General sources

Ancient

Flavius Josephus Flavius Josephus (; , ; ), born Yosef ben Mattityahu (), was a History of the Jews in the Roman Empire, Roman–Jewish historian and military leader. Best known for writing ''The Jewish War'', he was born in Jerusalem—then part of the Judaea ...

, '' The Jewish War''
Livre II, XI
*

, ''

'', livre XIX *

, ''Histoire romaine'', livres LIX et LX *

, '' Ad Flaccum'' *

, 12

Historians

* . * . * . * . * . * Nikkos Kokkinos, ''The Herodian Dynasty: Origins, Role in Society and Eclipse'', Sheffield Academic Press, Sheffield, coll. « Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha Supplement Series », 1998 . * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * . *

External links

*
Agrippa I
article in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith

{{DEFAULTSORT:Agrippa, Herod People in Acts of the Apostles Herodian dynasty Herod Agrippa, Marcus Jewish royalty 11 BC births 44 deaths Roman client monarchs 1st-century monarchs in the Middle East 1st-century Roman governors of Judaea 1st-century Herodian rulers Judean people People from Roman Judea Deaths onstage 1st-century Jews 1st-century people