|
Motherhood Penalty
The motherhood penalty (also known as child penalties) refers to the economic disadvantages women face in the workplace as a result of becoming mothers. This sociological concept highlights how working mothers often experience wage reductions, diminished perceived competence, and fewer career advancement opportunities compared to their childless counterparts. Studies indicate that mothers face a per-child wage penalty that exacerbates the gender pay gap. In addition to lower pay, mothers are often viewed as less committed and less dependable employees, leading to hiring biases, lower job evaluations, and reduced chances for promotion. These penalties are not limited to a single cause but are rooted in societal perceptions, workplace biases, and theories like the work-effort model, which posits that caregiving responsibilities reduce mothers' work productivity. The motherhood penalty is prevalent across various industrialized nations and has been documented across racial and economic ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Child Penalties
Child penalties (also known as ''motherhood penalty'') refer to the negative impact of Parenting, parenthood on women’s labour economics, labor market outcomes relative to men’s. After childbirth, women’s employment rates, working time, working hours, career progression, and wage, earnings tend to decline sharply relative to men’s outcomes. These penalties are central to understanding gender inequality in the labor market, explaining most of the earnings gap in many developed country, high-income countries. Research shows that long-run earnings penalties are around 20% in Nordic countries, 30–40% in the United States, U.S. and United Kingdom, U.K., and over 50% in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. While policies like parental leave, job-protected parental leave and childcare may help, child penalties are primarily shaped by labour market, labor market structure and gender role, gender norms. The magnitude and persistence of child penalties have made them central to the ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Stephanie Moller
Stephanie Moller is an American sociologist who is Professor of Sociology at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. Career After receiving her Ph.D. from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in 2003, Moller joined the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Charlotte in 2003 as an assistant professor of sociology. She left the university in 2008 to work in Brand and Advertising Research at Bank of America. Moller returned to the University of North Carolina at Charlotte August 2019. She was named full professor and department chair in 2014. She served as chair until 2019 when she transitioned to the Director of the Public Policy Doctoral Program. In 2022, she retired from administration and returned to a faculty position as Professor of Sociology and Public Policy at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte Also in 2014, she became editor-in-chief of ''Social Science Research ''Social Science Research'' is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic jour ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Time Bind
Time is the continuous progression of existence that occurs in an apparently irreversible succession from the past, through the present, and into the future. It is a component quantity of various measurements used to sequence events, to compare the duration of events (or the intervals between them), and to quantify rates of change of quantities in material reality or in the conscious experience. Time is often referred to as a fourth dimension, along with three spatial dimensions. Time is one of the seven fundamental physical quantities in both the International System of Units (SI) and International System of Quantities. The SI base unit of time is the second, which is defined by measuring the electronic transition frequency of caesium atoms. General relativity is the primary framework for understanding how spacetime works. Through advances in both theoretical and experimental investigations of spacetime, it has been shown that time can be distorted and dilated, particularl ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Occupational Sexism
Occupational sexism (also called sexism in the workplace and employment sexism) is discrimination based on a person's sex that occurs in a place of employment. Social role theory Social role theory may explain one reason for why occupational sexism exists. Historically women's place was in the home, while the males were in the workforce. This division consequently formed expectations for both men and women in society and occupations. These expectations, in turn, gave rise to gender stereotypes that play a role in the formation of sexism in the work place, i.e., occupational sexism. According to a reference, there are three common patterns associated with social role theory that might help explain the relationship between the theory and occupational sexism. The three patterns are as follows: #Women tend to take on more domestic tasks; #Women and men often have different occupational roles; and as well as pay gap #In occupations, women often have lower status These patterns can wo ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Occupational Segregation
Occupational segregation is the distribution of workers across and within occupations, based upon demographic characteristics, most often gender. More types of occupational segregation include racial and ethnicity segregation, and sexual orientation segregation. These demographic characteristics often intersect. While a job refers to an actual position in a firm or industry, an occupation represents a group of similar jobs that require similar skill requirements and duties. Many occupations are segregated within themselves because of the differing jobs, but this is difficult to detect in terms of occupational data. Occupational segregation compares different groups and their occupations within the context of the entire labor force. The value or prestige of the jobs are typically not factored into the measurements. Occupational segregation levels differ on a basis of perfect segregation and integration. Perfect segregation occurs where any given occupation employs only one group. ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Maternal Wall
A mother is the female parent of a child. A woman may be considered a mother by virtue of having given birth, by raising a child who may or may not be her biological offspring, or by supplying her ovum for fertilisation in the case of gestational surrogacy. A biological mother is the female genetic contributor to the creation of the infant, through sexual intercourse or egg donation. A biological mother may have legal obligations to a child not raised by her, such as an obligation of monetary support. An adoptive mother is a female who has become the child's parent through the legal process of adoption. A putative mother is a female whose biological relationship to a child is alleged but has not been established. A stepmother is a non-biological female parent married to a child's preexisting parent, and may form a family unit but generally does not have the legal rights and responsibilities of a parent in relation to the child. A father is the male counterpart of a mother. Wom ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Glass Ceiling
A glass ceiling is a metaphor usually applied to women, used to represent an invisible barrier that prevents a given demographic from rising beyond a certain level in a hierarchy.Federal Glass Ceiling Commission''Solid Investments: Making Full Use of the Nation's Human Capital''. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, November 1995, p. 13-15. The metaphor was first used by feminists in reference to barriers in the careers of high-achieving women.Federal Glass Ceiling Commission''Good for Business: Making Full Use of the Nation's Human Capital.'' Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, March 1995. It was coined by Marilyn Loden during a speech in 1978. In the United States, the concept is sometimes extended to refer to racial inequality. Racialised women in white-majority countries often find the most difficulty in "breaking the glass ceiling" because they lie at the intersection of two historically marginalized groups: women and people of color. East Asian and Eas ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Fatherhood Bonus
Fatherhood bonus or fatherhood premium refers to the advantages that working fathers get in terms of pay and perceived competence in comparison with working mothers and childless men. Fatherhood bonus occurs due to the belief that fathers have greater work commitment, stability and deservingness. On the other hand, mothers are perceived as exhausted and distracted at work, thereby perceiving them to be less productive. An alternative explanation for the fatherhood bonus is that men who are fathers strive harder at work in order to provide for their families (psychological transition upon fatherhood); the psychological transition for women upon motherhood can be explained as putting children as higher priority than work which would explain the motherhood penalty. The fatherhood bonus is highest for married, white college graduates with professional jobs. Among Brits aged 42, fathers receive 21% wage bonus compared to non-fathers of the same age. This wage bonus has increased from 12% ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Family Wage
A family wage is a wage that is sufficient to raise a family. This contrasts with a living wage, which is generally taken to mean a wage sufficient for a single individual to live on, but not necessarily sufficient to also support a family. History United States The term "family wage jobs" has occasional contemporary use in American political rhetoric and is most associated with Catholic intellectuals, in the Catholic social teaching tradition, such as Douglas Kmiec and Allan C. Carlson. Charles Krauthammer has said there should be a two-tiered system where breadwinners have a higher minimum wage. Israel A family wage – a basic wage, with a supplement by family size, was adopted by the dominant trade union in the British Mandate of Palestine (now the state of Israel), Histadrut, in 1923, and remained policy for a decade, but implementation was limited. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, a family wage was a demand of male labour unionists at the turn of the 19th ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Employment Discrimination
Employment discrimination is a form of illegal discrimination in the workplace based on legally protected characteristics. In the U.S., federal anti-discrimination law prohibits discrimination by employers against employees based on age, race, gender, sex (including pregnancy, sexual orientation, and gender identity), religion, national origin, and physical or mental disability. State and local laws often protect additional characteristics such as marital status, veteran status and caregiver/familial status. Earnings differentials or occupational differentiation—where differences in pay come from differences in qualifications or responsibilities—should not be confused with employment discrimination. Discrimination can be intended and involve disparate treatment of a group or be unintended, yet create disparate impact for a group. Definition In neoclassical economics theory, labor market discrimination is defined as the different treatment of two equally qualified i ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Double Burden
A double burden (also called double day, second shift, and double duty) is the workload of people who work to earn money, but who are also responsible for significant amounts of unpaid Feminist economics#Domestic systems, domestic labor. This phenomenon is also known as the Second Shift as in Arlie Hochschild's The Second Shift, book of the same name. In couples where both partners have paid jobs, women often spend significantly more time than men on household chores and caring work, such as childrearing or caring for sick family members. This outcome is determined in large part by traditional gender roles that have been accepted by society over time. Labor market constraints also play a role in determining who does the bulk of unpaid work. Efforts have been made to document the effects of this double burden on couples placed in such situations. Many studies have traced the effects of the gendered division of labor, and in most cases there was a notable difference between the ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Family And Medical Leave Act Of 1993
The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 (FMLA) is a United States labor law requiring covered employers to provide employees with job-protected, unpaid leave for qualified medical and family reasons. The FMLA was a major part of President Bill Clinton's first-term domestic agenda, and he signed it into law on February 5, 1993. The FMLA is administered by the Wage and Hour Division of the United States Department of Labor. The FMLA allows eligible employees to take up to 12 work weeks of unpaid leave during any 12-month period to care for a new child, care for a seriously ill family member, or recover from a serious illness. The FMLA covers both public- and private-sector employees, but certain categories of employees, including elected officials and highly compensated employees, are excluded or face certain limitations. To be eligible for FMLA leave, an employee must have worked for their employer for at least 12 months, have worked at least 1,250 hours over the past 12 months, ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
