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Westphalian Sovereignty
The Westphalian system, also known as Westphalian sovereignty, is a principle in international law that each State (polity), state has exclusive sovereignty over its territory. The principle developed in Europe after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, based on the state theory of Jean Bodin and the natural law teachings of Hugo Grotius. It underlies the modern International relations, international system of sovereign states and is enshrined in the United Nations Charter, which states that "nothing ... shall authorize the United Nations to intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state." According to the principle, every state, no matter how large or small, has an equal right to sovereignty. Political scientists have traced the concept to the eponymous peace treaties that ended the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) and Eighty Years' War (1568–1648). The principle of non-interference was further developed in the 18th century. The Westphalian sy ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
International Law
International law, also known as public international law and the law of nations, is the set of Rule of law, rules, norms, Customary law, legal customs and standards that State (polity), states and other actors feel an obligation to, and generally do, obey in their mutual relations. In international relations, actors are simply the individuals and collective entities, such as states, International organization, international organizations, and non-state groups, which can make behavioral choices, whether lawful or unlawful. Rules are formal, typically written expectations that outline required behavior, while norms are informal, often unwritten guidelines about appropriate behavior that are shaped by custom and social practice. It establishes norms for states across a broad range of domains, including war and diplomacy, Trade, economic relations, and human rights. International law differs from state-based List of national legal systems, domestic legal systems in that it operates ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Reformation
The Reformation, also known as the Protestant Reformation or the European Reformation, was a time of major Theology, theological movement in Western Christianity in 16th-century Europe that posed a religious and political challenge to the papacy and the authority of the Catholic Church. Towards the end of the Renaissance, the Reformation marked the beginning of Protestantism. It is considered one of the events that signified the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the early modern period in Europe. The Reformation is usually dated from Martin Luther's publication of the ''Ninety-five Theses'' in 1517, which gave birth to Lutheranism. Prior to Martin Luther and other Protestant Reformers, there were Proto-Protestantism, earlier reform movements within Western Christianity. The end of the Reformation era is disputed among modern scholars. In general, the Reformers argued that justification (theology), justification was sola fide, based on faith in Jesus alone and n ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Nationalism
Nationalism is an idea or movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the state. As a movement, it presupposes the existence and tends to promote the interests of a particular nation, Smith, Anthony. ''Nationalism: Theory, Ideology, History''. Polity, 2010. pp. 9, 25–30; especially with the aim of gaining and maintaining its sovereignty ( self-governance) over its perceived homeland to create a nation-state. It holds that each nation should govern itself, free from outside interference (self-determination), that a nation is a natural and ideal basis for a polity, and that the nation is the only rightful source of political power. It further aims to build and maintain a single national identity, based on a combination of shared social characteristics such as culture, ethnicity, geographic location, language, politics (or the government), religion, traditions and belief in a shared singular history, and to promote national unity or solidarity. There are ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Interstate System (world-systems Theory)
The interstate system is a concept used within world-systems theory to describe the system of state relationships that arose either as a concomitant process or as a consequence of the development of the capitalist world-system over the course of the "long" 16th century. The theory of the interstate system holds that all states are defined through their relationship to other states or through participation in the world economy, and that divisions between states help to divide the world into a core, periphery and semi-periphery. Concepts Development of an interstate system Immanuel Wallerstein wrote that the development of a capitalist world-economy created all of the major institutions of the modern world, including social classes, nations, households and states. These institutions also created each other, as nations, classes, and households came to be defined by their relations to the state, and were subsequently able to shape the state. Out of this structural chaos ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Emer De Vattel
Emmerich de Vattel ( 25 April 171428 December 1767) was a philosopher, diplomat, and jurist. Vattel's work profoundly influenced the development of international law. He is most famous for his 1758 work ''The Law of Nations''. This work was his claim to fame and won him enough prestige to be appointed as a councilor to the court of Augustus III of Poland, Frederick Augustus II of Saxony. Vattel combined Natural law, naturalist legal reasoning and Positive law, positivist legal reasoning. Early life and career The son of a Protestant minister, Vattel was born at Couvet, Neuchâtel, on the 25th of April 1714. He studied classics and philosophy at University of Basel, Basel and University of Geneva, Geneva. During his early years his favorite pursuit was philosophy and, having carefully studied the works of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Leibniz and Christian Wolff (philosopher), Christian Wolff, he published in 1741 a defence of Leibniz's system against Jean-Pierre de Crousaz. In the ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Henry Kissinger
Henry Alfred Kissinger (May 27, 1923 – November 29, 2023) was an American diplomat and political scientist who served as the 56th United States secretary of state from 1973 to 1977 and the 7th National Security Advisor (United States), national security advisor from 1969 to 1975, serving under presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford. Born in Germany, Kissinger emigrated to the United States in 1938 as a Emigration of Jews from Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe, Jewish refugee fleeing Nazi persecution. He served in the U.S. Army during World War II. After the war, he attended Harvard University, where he excelled academically. He later became a professor of government at the university and earned an international reputation as an expert on nuclear weapons and foreign policy. He acted as a consultant to government agencies, think tanks, and the presidential campaigns of Nelson Rockefeller and Nixon before being appointed as national security advisor and later secretary o ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
European Wars Of Religion
The European wars of religion were a series of wars waged in Europe during the 16th, 17th and early 18th centuries. Fought after the Protestant Reformation began in 1517, the wars disrupted the religious and political order in the Catholic Church, Catholic countries of Europe, or Christendom. Other motives during the wars involved revolt, territorial ambitions and European balance of power, great power conflicts. By the end of the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), Catholic France had allied with the Protestant forces against the Catholic Habsburg monarchy. The wars were largely ended by the Peace of Westphalia (1648), which established a new political order that is now known as Westphalian sovereignty. The conflicts began with the minor Knights' War (1522–1523), followed by the larger German Peasants' War (1524–1525) in the Holy Roman Empire. Warfare intensified after the Catholic Church began the Counter-Reformation against the growth of Protestantism in 1545. The confl ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Doctrine Of The Two Swords
In Catholicism, the doctrine (or theory) of the two swords is an Biblical exegesis, exegesis of Sell your cloak and buy a sword, Luke 22:38 elaborated in the Middle Ages. It can be understood as a particular justification for the Gelasian doctrine of "the sacred authority of the priesthood and the royal power".Patrick Stephen Healy"Two Swords, Doctrine of the" in Robert E. Bjork (ed.), ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages'' (Oxford University Press, 2010). This particular exegesis of "here are two swords ... it is enough" was first put forward by Peter Damian in the 1060s. It was later taken up by Gottschalk of Aachen on behalf of the Emperor Henry IV (1056–1105) against the claims of Pope Gregory VII (1073–1085) during the Investiture Contest. In the 12th century, Bernard of Clairvaux, in his ''De consideratione'', argued that both the "material sword" (''gladius materialis'') and the "spiritual sword" (''gladius spiritualis'') belonged ultimately to the Papacy. By th ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Globalization
Globalization is the process of increasing interdependence and integration among the economies, markets, societies, and cultures of different countries worldwide. This is made possible by the reduction of barriers to international trade, the liberalization of capital movements, the development of transportation, and the advancement of information and communication technologies. The term ''globalization'' first appeared in the early 20th century (supplanting an earlier French term ''mondialisation''). It developed its current meaning sometime in the second half of the 20th century, and came into popular use in the 1990s to describe the unprecedented international connectivity of the Post–Cold War era, post–Cold War world. The origins of globalization can be traced back to the 18th and 19th centuries, driven by advances in transportation and communication technologies. These developments increased global interactions, fostering the growth of international trade and the exc ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Internationalism (politics)
Internationalism is a political principle that advocates greater political or economic cooperation among State (polity), states and nations. It is associated with other political movements and Ideology, ideologies, but can also reflect a doctrine, belief system, or movement in itself.Warren F. Kuehl, doi:10.1111/j.1468-0130.1986.tb00536.x, Concepts of Internationalism in History, July 1986. Supporters of internationalism are known as internationalists and generally believe that humans should unite across national, political, cultural, racial, or class boundaries to advance their common interests, or that governments should cooperate because their mutual long-term interests are of greater importance than their short-term disputes. Internationalism has several interpretations and meanings, but is usually characterized by opposition to ultranationalism and isolationism; support for international institutions such as the United Nations; and a Cosmopolitanism, cosmopolitan outlook th ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Johannes Paulmann
Johannes Paulmann (born October 4, 1960 in Darmstadt, Germany) is a German historian. Education Paulmann studied history and English at the universities of Munich and Leicester. Afterwards, he worked as an adult educator and as a researcher in Tübingen, Munich, and London. In 1991, he finished his doctorate, his dissertation titled ''Staat und Arbeitsmarkt in Großbritannien'' (''The State and the Labor Market in Great Britain''), which was supervised by Gerhard A. Ritter. In 1999, he finished his habilitation thesis ''Pomp und Politik'' (''Pomp and Politics''), for which he received an award from the Association of German Historians at the Deutscher Historikertag in 2002. Academic career Between 2000 and 2002, Paulmann was a substitute professor in Munich. At the International University Bremen, he worked as a history professor from 2002 until 2006, where he was the first holder of the Helmut Schmidt Chair of International History. Between 2006 and 2011, Paulmann was professor ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
