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Venomics Workflow
Venomics is the study of proteins associated with ''venom'', a toxic substance secreted by animals, which is typically injected either offensively or defensively into prey or aggressors, respectively. Background Venom is produced in a specialised gland (or glands) and is delivered through hollow fangs or a stinger in a process called envenomation. The main function of venom is to disrupt the physiological processes of the wounded animal through Neurotoxin, neurotoxic cytotoxic, myotoxic, or haemotoxic mechanisms. This can then help in certain processes such as procuring prey or in defense predators. Venom has evolved many times in multiple phyla, each having developed their own unique types of venom and methods of delivery independently. However, due to the excessive amounts of venomous animals in the world, they are the major cause of animal-related deaths (~ 57,000 in 2013) than non-venomous animals (~22,000). For example, globally, someone is bitten by a snake every 10 secon ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Venom
Venom or zootoxin is a type of toxin produced by an animal that is actively delivered through a wound by means of a bite, sting, or similar action. The toxin is delivered through a specially evolved ''venom apparatus'', such as fangs or a stinger, in a process called ''envenomation''. Venom is often distinguished from ''poison'', which is a toxin that is passively delivered by being ingested, inhaled, or absorbed through the skin, and ''toxungen'', which is actively transferred to the external surface of another animal via a physical delivery mechanism. Venom has evolved in terrestrial and marine environments and in a wide variety of animals: both predators and prey, and both vertebrates and invertebrates. Venoms kill through the action of at least four major classes of toxin, namely necrosis, necrotoxins and cytotoxins, which kill cells; neurotoxins, which affect nervous systems; myotoxins, which damage muscles; and Hemotoxin, haemotoxins, which disrupt Thrombus, blood clotti ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
High-performance Liquid Chromatography
High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), formerly referred to as high-pressure liquid chromatography, is a technique in analytical chemistry used to separate, identify, and quantify specific components in mixtures. The mixtures can originate from food, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, biological, environmental and agriculture, etc., which have been dissolved into liquid solutions. It relies on high pressure pumps, which deliver mixtures of various solvents, called the mobile phase, which flows through the system, collecting the sample mixture on the way, delivering it into a cylinder, called the column, filled with solid particles, made of adsorbent material, called the stationary phase. Each component in the sample interacts differently with the adsorbent material, causing different migration rates for each component. These different rates lead to separation as the species flow out of the column into a specific detector such as UV detectors. The output of the detecto ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Angiotensin-converting Enzyme
Angiotensin-converting enzyme (), or ACE, is a central component of the renin–angiotensin system (RAS), which controls blood pressure by regulating the volume of fluids in the body. It converts the hormone angiotensin I to the active vasoconstriction, vasoconstrictor angiotensin II. Therefore, ACE indirectly increases blood pressure by causing blood vessels to constrict. ACE inhibitors are widely used as pharmaceutical drugs for treatment of cardiovascular diseases. Other lesser known functions of ACE are degradation of bradykinin, substance P and amyloid beta, amyloid beta-protein. Nomenclature ACE is also known by the following names: * dipeptidyl carboxypeptidase I * peptidase P * dipeptide hydrolase * peptidyl dipeptidase * angiotensin converting enzyme * kininase II * angiotensin I-converting enzyme * carboxycathepsin * dipeptidyl carboxypeptidase * "hypertensin converting enzyme" peptidyl dipeptidase I * peptidyl-dipeptide hydrolase * peptidyldipeptide hydrolase * en ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Captopril
Captopril, sold under the brand name Capoten among others, is an ACE inhibitor, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor used for the treatment of hypertension and some types of congestive heart failure. Captopril was the first oral ACE inhibitor found for the treatment of hypertension. It does not cause fatigue as associated with beta-blockers. Captopril was patented in 1976 and approved for medical use in 1980. Structure–activity relationship Captopril has an L-proline group which allows it to be more bioavailable in oral formulations. The thiol moiety within the molecule has been associated with two significant adverse effects: the hapten or immune response. This immune response, also known as agranulocytosis, can explain the adverse drug events which may be seen in captopril with the allergic response which includes hives, severe stomach pain, difficulty breathing, and swelling of the face, lips, tongue or throat. In terms of interaction with the enzyme, the molec ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Expressed Sequence Tag
In genetics, an expressed sequence tag (EST) is a short sub-sequence of a cDNA sequence. ESTs may be used to identify gene transcripts, and were instrumental in gene discovery and in gene-sequence determination. The identification of ESTs has proceeded rapidly, with approximately 74.2 million ESTs now available in public databases (e.g. GenBank 1 January 2013, all species). EST approaches have largely been superseded by whole genome and transcriptome sequencing and metagenome sequencing. An EST results from one-shot sequencing of a cloned cDNA. The cDNAs used for EST generation are typically individual clones from a cDNA library. The resulting sequence is a relatively low-quality fragment whose length is limited by current technology to approximately 500 to 800 nucleotides. Because these clones consist of DNA that is complementary to mRNA, the ESTs represent portions of expressed genes. They may be represented in databases as either cDNA/mRNA sequence or as the reverse compleme ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Natriuretic Peptide Precursor C
Natriuretic peptide precursor C, also known as NPPC, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''NPPC'' gene. The precursor NPPC protein is cleaved to the 22 amino acid peptide C-type natriuretic peptide (''CNP''). Function Natriuretic peptides comprise a family of 3 structurally related molecules: atrial natriuretic peptide ( ANP), brain natriuretic peptide ( BNP), and C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP), encoded by a gene symbolized ''NPPC''. These peptides possess potent natriuretic, diuretic, and vasodilating activities and are implicated in body fluid homeostasis and blood pressure control. Unlike ANP and BNP, CNP does not have direct natriuretic activity. This is because CNP is a selective agonist for the B-type natriuretic receptor ( NPRB) whereas ANP and BNP are selective for the A-type natriuretic receptor (NPRA). It is synthesized and secreted from the endothelium in response to many stimuli, for example shear stress Shear stress (often denoted by , Greek al ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Phospholipase A2
The enzyme phospholipase A2 (EC 3.1.1.4, PLA2, systematic name phosphatidylcholine 2-acylhydrolase) catalyses the cleavage of fatty acids in position 2 of phospholipids, hydrolyzing the bond between the second fatty acid "tail" and the glycerol molecule: :phosphatidylcholine + H2O = 1-acylglycerophosphocholine + a carboxylate This particular phospholipase specifically recognizes the ''sn''2 acyl bond of phospholipids and catalytically hydrolyzes the bond, releasing arachidonic acid and lysophosphatidyl choline, a precursor of lysophosphatidic acid. Upon downstream modification by cyclooxygenases or lipoxygenases, arachidonic acid is modified into active compounds called eicosanoids. Eicosanoids include prostaglandins and leukotrienes, which are categorized as anti-inflammatory and inflammatory mediators. PLA2 enzymes are commonly found in mammalian tissues as well as arachnid, insect, and snake venom. Venom from bees is largely composed of melittin, which is a stimulan ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Metalloproteinase
A metalloproteinase, or metalloprotease, is any protease enzyme whose catalytic mechanism involves a metal. An example is ADAM12 which plays a significant role in the fusion of muscle cells during embryo development, in a process known as myogenesis. Most metalloproteases require zinc, but some use cobalt. The metal ion is coordinated to the protein via three ligands. The ligands coordinating the metal ion can vary with histidine, glutamate, aspartate, lysine, and arginine. The fourth coordination position is taken up by a labile water molecule. Treatment with chelating agents such as EDTA leads to complete inactivation. EDTA is a metal chelator that removes zinc, which is essential for activity. They are also inhibited by the chelator orthophenanthroline. Classification There are two subgroups of metalloproteinases: * Exopeptidases, metalloexopeptidases (Enzyme Commission number, EC number: 3.4.17). * Endopeptidases, metalloendopeptidases (3.4.24). Well known metalloendopepti ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Bothrops Neuwiedi
:''Common names: Neuwied's lancehead, Silva VX da (2004). "The ''Bothrops neuwiedi'' complex". ''In'': Campbell JA, Lamar WW (2004). ''The Venomous Reptiles of the Western Hemisphere''. Ithaca and London: Comstock Publishing Associates. 870 pp. 1,500 plates. . ''jararaca pintada''.U.S. Navy (1991). ''Poisonous Snakes of the World''. New York: United States Government/Dover Publications Inc. 203 pp. .'' ''Bothrops neuwiedi'' is a highly venomous pit viper species endemic to South America. This relatively small snake has a wide range and is a major source of snakebite in Argentina. It was named after German naturalist Prince Maximilian of Wied-Neuwied (1782-1867), who made important collections in Brazil (1815-1817). Seven subspecies are currently recognized, including the nominate subspecies described here. Description Adults of ''B. neuwiedi'' average in total length (including tail), but may grow to as much as . Head scalation includes 7-11 keeled intrasupraoculars (rarely ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Liquid Chromatography–mass Spectrometry
Liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS) is an analytical chemistry technique that combines the physical separation capabilities of liquid chromatography (or High performance liquid chromatography, HPLC) with the mass analysis capabilities of mass spectrometry (MS). Coupled chromatography – MS systems are popular in chemical analysis because the individual capabilities of each technique are enhanced synergistically. While liquid chromatography separates mixtures with multiple components, mass spectrometry provides spectral information that may help to identify (or confirm the suspected identity of) each separated component. MS is not only sensitive, but provides selective detection, relieving the need for complete chromatographic separation. LC–MS is also appropriate for metabolomics because of its good coverage of a wide range of chemicals. This tandem technique can be used to analyze biochemical, organic, and inorganic compounds commonly found in complex samples o ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Bottom-up Proteomics
Bottom-up proteomics is a common method to identify proteins and characterize their amino acid sequences and post-translational modifications by proteolytic digestion of proteins prior to analysis by mass spectrometry. BUP techniques can be an alternative to Maldi-Tof MS approaches, as they allow the identification of bacterial strains and the characterization of potential resistance and virulence factors in a single run. The major alternative workflow used in proteomics is called top-down proteomics where intact proteins are purified prior to digestion and/or fragmentation either within the mass spectrometer or by 2D electrophoresis. Essentially, bottom-up proteomics is a relatively simple and reliable means of determining the protein make-up of a given sample of cells, tissues, etc. In bottom-up proteomics, the crude protein extract is enzymatically digested, followed by one or more dimensions of separation of the peptides by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
