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Memory Laws
A memory law ( in German language, German, in French language, French) is a legal provision governing the interpretation of historical events and showcases the legislator's or judicial preference for a certain narrative about the past. In the process, competing interpretations may be downplayed, sidelined, or even prohibited. Various types of memory laws exist, in particular, in countries that allow for the introduction of limitations to the freedom of expression to protect other values, such as the democratic character of the state, the rights and reputation of others, and historical truth. Uladzislau Belavusau and Aleksandra Gliszczyńska-Grabias define memory laws as "enshrine[ing] state-approved interpretations of historical events." Eric Heinze argues that law can work equally powerfully through legislation that makes no express reference to history, for example, when journalists, academics, students, or other citizens face personal or professional hardship for dissenting ...
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German Language
German (, ) is a West Germanic language in the Indo-European language family, mainly spoken in Western Europe, Western and Central Europe. It is the majority and Official language, official (or co-official) language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein. It is also an official language of Luxembourg, German-speaking Community of Belgium, Belgium and the Italian autonomous province of South Tyrol, as well as a recognized national language in Namibia. There are also notable German-speaking communities in other parts of Europe, including: Poland (Upper Silesia), the Czech Republic (North Bohemia), Denmark (South Jutland County, North Schleswig), Slovakia (Krahule), Germans of Romania, Romania, Hungary (Sopron), and France (European Collectivity of Alsace, Alsace). Overseas, sizeable communities of German-speakers are found in the Americas. German is one of the global language system, major languages of the world, with nearly 80 million native speakers and over 130 mi ...
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World War II
World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the world's countries participated, with many nations mobilising all resources in pursuit of total war. Tanks in World War II, Tanks and Air warfare of World War II, aircraft played major roles, enabling the strategic bombing of cities and delivery of the Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, first and only nuclear weapons ever used in war. World War II is the List of wars by death toll, deadliest conflict in history, causing World War II casualties, the death of 70 to 85 million people, more than half of whom were civilians. Millions died in genocides, including the Holocaust, and by massacres, starvation, and disease. After the Allied victory, Allied-occupied Germany, Germany, Allied-occupied Austria, Austria, Occupation of Japan, Japan, a ...
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Law On Crimes Committed Against Atatürk
The Law on Crimes Committed Against Atatürk, or the Law No. 5816, also colloquially known as the law on the protection of Atatürk, is a ''lèse-majesté'' law of the Republic of Turkey adopted on July 25, 1951. Its subject is the crimes to be committed, or have been committed, against the founder and first President of the country, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. It was proposed (and passed) by the ruling Democrat Party due to the increase in attacks on Atatürk's statues and busts. Within the framework of this law, access to YouTube, Geocities, and many blog sites from Turkey was blocked in 2007. In November 2010, Google removed videos from YouTube after a German company claimed that some of its copyrights were violated in the videos in question on YouTube (which also contained insults against Atatürk). Thereupon, the relevant Turkish court lifted the access barrier that was imposed on YouTube. However, after a short time, the company's claims were unfounded, and the videos in qu ...
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Cult Of Personality
A cult of personality, or a cult of the leader,Cas Mudde, Mudde, Cas and Kaltwasser, Cristóbal Rovira (2017) ''Populism: A Very Short Introduction''. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 63. is the result of an effort which is made to create an idealized and heroic image of a admirable leader, often through unquestioning flattery and praise. Historically, it has been developed through techniques such as the manipulation of the mass media, the dissemination of propaganda, the staging of spectacles, the manipulation of the arts, the instilling of patriotism, and government-organized demonstrations and rallies. A cult of personality is similar to apotheosis, except that it is established through the use of modern social engineering (political science), social engineering techniques, it is usually established by the state or the party in one-party states and dominant-party states. Cults of personality often accompany the leaders of totalitarian or authoritarian governments. They c ...
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Communist Crimes (Polish Legal Concept)
Communist crimes () is a legal definition used in the Polish Penal Code. The concept of a communist crime is also used more broadly internationally, and is employed by human rights non-governmental organizations as well as government agencies such as the Unitas Foundation, the Institute for Information on the Crimes of Communism, the Institute for the Study of Totalitarian Regimes, the Institute for the Investigation of Communist Crimes in Romania, and the Office for the Documentation and the Investigation of the Crimes of Communism. Polish law In legal terminology – as defined by the Article 2.1 of the Journal of Laws (Dziennik Ustaw, DzU) of the Republic of Poland issued 18 December 1998, "communist crimes" constitute crimes committed by the functionaries of the communist apparatus between 17 September 1939 and 31 December 1989. The crimes defined therein form either political repression or direct violation of human rights of an individual or a group; including those, oth ...
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Bans On Communist Symbols
Communist symbols have been banned, in part or in whole, by a number of the world's countries. As part of a broader process of decommunization, these bans have mostly been proposed or implemented in countries that belonged to the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War, including some post-Soviet states. In some countries, the bans also extend to prohibit the propagation of communism in any form, with varying punishments applied to violators. Though the bans imposed by these countries nominally target the communist ideology, they may be accompanied by popular anti- leftist sentiment and therefore a ''de facto'' ban on all leftist philosophies, such as socialism, while not explicitly passing legislation to ban them. Summary table General bans Indonesia "Communism / Marxism–Leninism" (official terminology) was banned in Indonesia following the aftermath of the 30 September coup attempt and the subsequent anti-communist killings, by the adoption of ''TAP MPRS'' no. 25/ ...
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Post–World War II Legality Of Nazi Flags
The use of symbols of the Nazi Party and Nazi Germany (1933–1945) is currently subject to legal restrictions in a number of countries, such as Austria, Belarus, Brazil, the Czech Republic, France, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Russia, Ukraine and other countries. While legal in most countries, the display of flags associated with the Nazi government (see: Nazi flags) is subject to restriction or an outright ban in several European countries. Many Nazi flags make use of the swastika symbol; however, the swastika is not always used in connection with the Nazi Party movement or of the German Third Reich or the combined German military of 1933–1945. Summary table Americas North America Canada Canada has no legislation specifically restricting the ownership, display, purchase, import, or export of Nazi flags. However, sections 318–320 of the Criminal Code, adopted by Canada's parliament in 1970 and based in large part on the 1965 Cohen Committee recommendations, ...
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Hate Speech
Hate speech is a term with varied meaning and has no single, consistent definition. It is defined by the ''Cambridge Dictionary'' as "public speech that expresses hate or encourages violence towards a person or group based on something such as race, religion, sex, or sexual orientation". The ''Encyclopedia of the American Constitution'' states that hate speech is "usually thought to include communications of animosity or disparagement of an individual or a group on account of a group characteristic such as race, color, national origin, sex, disability, religion, or sexual orientation". There is no single definition of what constitutes "hate" or "disparagement". Legal definitions of hate speech vary from country to country. There has been much debate over freedom of speech, hate speech, and hate speech legislation. The laws of some countries describe hate speech as speech, gestures, conduct, writing, or displays that incite violence or prejudicial actions against a group o ...
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Genocide Denial
Genocide denial is the attempt to deny or minimize the scale and severity of an instance of genocide. Denial is an integral part of genocide and includes the secret planning of genocide, propaganda while the genocide is going on, and destruction of evidence of mass killings. According to genocide researcher Gregory Stanton, denial "is among the surest indicators of further genocidal massacres". Some scholars define denial as the final stage of a genocidal process. Richard G. Hovannisian states, "Complete annihilation of a people requires the banishment of recollection and suffocation of remembrance. Falsification, deception and half-truths reduce what was, to what might have been or perhaps what was not at all." Examples include: Holodomor denial, Armenian genocide denial, denial of genocides of Indigenous peoples, Holocaust denial, Cambodian genocide denial, Bosnian genocide denial, Rohingya genocide denial, Rwandan genocide denial. The distinction between respectable academic ...
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Laws Against Holocaust Denial
Between 1941 and 1945, Government of Nazi Germany, the government of Nazi Germany perpetrated the Holocaust: a large-scale industrialised genocide in which approximately six million History of the Jews in Europe, Jews were systematically murdered throughout German-occupied Europe. Since World War II, several countries have criminalised Holocaust denial—the assertion by Antisemitism, antisemites that the genocide was fabricated or Holocaust trivialization, has been exaggerated. Currently, 17 European countries, along with Canada and Israel, have laws in place that cover Holocaust denial as a punishable offence. Many countries also have broader laws that criminalise genocide denial as a whole, including that of the Holocaust. Among the countries that have banned Holocaust denial, Austria, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Russia have also Bans on Nazi symbols, banned Nazi symbols. Additionally, any expression of genocide justification is also a criminal offence in several cou ...
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Recognition Of The Armenian Genocide
Armenian genocide recognition is the formal acceptance of the fact that the Ottoman Empire's systematic massacres and forced deportation of Armenians from 1915 to 1923, both during and after the First World War, constituted genocide. Most historians outside Turkey recognize the fact that the Ottoman Empire's persecution of Armenians was a genocide.Academic consensus: * * * * * * * However, despite the recognition of the genocidal character of the massacre of Armenians in scholarship as well as in civil society, some governments have been reticent to officially acknowledge the killings as genocide, due to political concerns regarding their relations with the Turkish government. , the governments and parliaments of 34 countries, including Argentina, Austria, Brazil, Canada, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Mexico, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Sweden, the United States and Uruguay, have formally recognized the Armenian genocide, with the latter being the first coun ...
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