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IGMP Snooping Example - En
The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is a communications protocol used by hosts and adjacent routers on IPv4 networks to establish multicast group memberships. IGMP is an integral part of IP multicast and allows the network to direct multicast transmissions only to hosts that have requested them. IGMP can be used for one-to-many networking applications such as online streaming video and gaming, and allows more efficient use of resources when supporting these types of applications. IGMP is used on IPv4 networks. Multicast management on IPv6 networks is handled by Multicast Listener Discovery (MLD) which is a part of ICMPv6 in contrast to IGMP's bare IP encapsulation. Architecture A network designed to deliver a multicast service using IGMP might use this basic architecture: IGMP operates between a host and a local multicast router. Switches featuring IGMP snooping also derive useful information by observing these IGMP transactions. Protocol Independent Multicast (PI ...
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Communications Protocol
A communication protocol is a system of rules that allows two or more entities of a communications system to transmit information via any variation of a physical quantity. The protocol defines the rules, syntax, semantics (computer science), semantics, and synchronization of communication and possible Error detection and correction, error recovery methods. Protocols may be implemented by Computer hardware, hardware, software, or a combination of both. Communicating systems use well-defined formats for exchanging various messages. Each message has an exact meaning intended to elicit a response from a range of possible responses predetermined for that particular situation. The specified behavior is typically independent of how it is to be Implementation, implemented. Communication protocols have to be agreed upon by the parties involved. To reach an agreement, a protocol may be developed into a technical standard. A programming language describes the same for computations, so there ...
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Multilayer Switch
A multilayer switch (MLS) is a computer networking device that switches on OSI layer 2 like an ordinary network switch and provides extra functions on higher OSI layers. The MLS was invented by engineers at Digital Equipment Corporation. Switching technologies are crucial to network design, as they allow traffic to be sent only where it is needed in most cases, using fast, hardware-based methods. Switching uses different kinds of network switches. A standard switch is known as a ''layer-2 switch'' and is commonly found in nearly any LAN. ''Layer-3'' or ''layer-4'' switches require advanced technology (see managed switch) and are more expensive and thus are usually only found in larger LANs or in special network environments. Multilayer switch Multi-layer switching combines layer-2, -3 and -4 switching technologies and provides high-speed scalability with low latency. Multi-layer switching can move traffic at wire speed and also provide layer-3 routing. There is no performan ...
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Internet Group Management Protocol With Access Control
The Internet Group Management Protocol with Access Control (IGMP-AC) has been designed for incorporating AAA protocol functionality in the existing IP multicast model. It will enforce authentication and authorization of an end user or receiver before joining or leaving a secured multicast group. To add AAA functionality, an access router or one-hop router of the receiver will act as a network access server (NAS). IGMP-AC is an extended version of Internet Group Management Protocol version 3. It provides a generic client-server authentication protocol, where the receiver or end user will act as a client, the AAA server will act as a server and the access router (one-hop router of the receiver) will perform the forwarding task. Thus, any suitable authentication protocol (e.g., Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP)) having client-server entities can be encapsulated over the IGMP-AC architecture. The IGMP-AC will not disrupt the usual function of the IGMPv3 (to be used for classica ...
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Windows
Windows is a Product lining, product line of Proprietary software, proprietary graphical user interface, graphical operating systems developed and marketed by Microsoft. It is grouped into families and subfamilies that cater to particular sectors of the computing industry – Windows (unqualified) for a consumer or corporate workstation, Windows Server for a Server (computing), server and Windows IoT for an embedded system. Windows is sold as either a consumer retail product or licensed to Original equipment manufacturer, third-party hardware manufacturers who sell products Software bundles, bundled with Windows. The first version of Windows, Windows 1.0, was released on November 20, 1985, as a graphical operating system shell for MS-DOS in response to the growing interest in graphical user interfaces (GUIs). The name "Windows" is a reference to the windowing system in GUIs. The 1990 release of Windows 3.0 catapulted its market success and led to various other product families ...
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Linux
Linux ( ) is a family of open source Unix-like operating systems based on the Linux kernel, an kernel (operating system), operating system kernel first released on September 17, 1991, by Linus Torvalds. Linux is typically package manager, packaged as a Linux distribution (distro), which includes the kernel and supporting system software and library (computing), libraries—most of which are provided by third parties—to create a complete operating system, designed as a clone of Unix and released under the copyleft GPL license. List of Linux distributions, Thousands of Linux distributions exist, many based directly or indirectly on other distributions; popular Linux distributions include Debian, Fedora Linux, Linux Mint, Arch Linux, and Ubuntu, while commercial distributions include Red Hat Enterprise Linux, SUSE Linux Enterprise, and ChromeOS. Linux distributions are frequently used in server platforms. Many Linux distributions use the word "Linux" in their name, but the Free ...
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FreeBSD
FreeBSD is a free-software Unix-like operating system descended from the Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD). The first version was released in 1993 developed from 386BSD, one of the first fully functional and free Unix clones on affordable home-class hardware, and has since continuously been the most commonly used BSD-derived operating system. FreeBSD maintains a complete system, delivering a kernel, device drivers, userland utilities, and documentation, as opposed to Linux only delivering a kernel and drivers, and relying on third-parties such as GNU for system software. The FreeBSD source code is generally released under a permissive BSD license, as opposed to the copyleft GPL used by Linux. The project includes a security team overseeing all software shipped in the base distribution. Third-party applications may be installed using the pkg package management system or from source via FreeBSD Ports. The project is supported and promoted by the FreeBSD Foundation ...
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Multicast Address
A multicast address is a logical identifier for a group of hosts in a computer network that are available to process datagrams or frames intended to be multicast for a designated network service. Multicast addressing can be used in the link layer (layer 2 in the OSI model), such as Ethernet multicast, and at the internet layer (layer 3 for OSI) for Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) or Version 6 (IPv6) multicast. IPv4 IPv4 multicast addresses are defined by the most-significant bit pattern of ''1110''. This originates from the classful network design of the early Internet when this group of addresses was designated as ''Class D''. The CIDR notation for this group is . The group includes the addresses from to . The address range is divided into blocks each assigned a specific purpose or behavior. ;Local subnetwork :Addresses in the range of to are individually assigned by IANA and designated for multicasting on the local subnetwork only. For example, the Routing Informa ...
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Ones' Complement
The ones' complement of a binary number is the value obtained by inverting (flipping) all the bits in the Binary number, binary representation of the number. The name "ones' complement" refers to the fact that such an inverted value, if added to the original, would always produce an "all ones" number (the term "Method of complements, complement" refers to such pairs of mutually additive inverse numbers, here in respect to a non-0 base number). This mathematical operation is primarily of interest in computer science, where it has varying effects depending on how a specific computer represents numbers. A ones' complement system or ones' complement arithmetic is a system in which negative numbers are represented by the inverse of the binary representations of their corresponding positive numbers. In such a system, a number is negated (converted from positive to negative or vice versa) by computing its ones' complement. An N-bit ones' complement numeral system can only represent int ...
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Internet Checksum
The Internet checksum, also called the IPv4 header checksum is a checksum used in version 4 of the Internet Protocol (IPv4) to detect corruption in the header of IPv4 packets. It is carried in the IPv4 packet header, and represents the 16-bit result of the summation of the header words. The IPv6 protocol does not use header checksums. Its designers considered that the whole-packet link layer checksumming provided in protocols, such as PPP and Ethernet, combined with the use of checksums in upper layer protocols such as TCP and UDP, are sufficient. Thus, IPv6 routers are relieved of the task of recomputing the checksum whenever the packet changes, for instance by the lowering of the hop limit counter on every hop. The Internet checksum is mandatory to detect errors in IPv6 UDP packets (including data payload). The Internet checksum is used to detect errors in ICMP packets (including data payload). Computation The checksum calculation is defined as follows: The checksu ...
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Transport Layer
In computer networking, the transport layer is a conceptual division of methods in the layered architecture of protocols in the network stack in the Internet protocol suite and the OSI model. The protocols of this layer provide end-to-end communication services for applications. It provides services such as connection-oriented communication, reliability, flow control, and multiplexing. The details of implementation and semantics of the transport layer of the Internet protocol suite, which is the foundation of the Internet, and the OSI model of general networking are different. The protocols in use today in this layer for the Internet all originated in the development of TCP/IP. In the OSI model the transport layer is often referred to as Layer 4, or L4, while numbered layers are not used in TCP/IP. The best-known transport protocol of the Internet protocol suite is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). It is used for connection-oriented transmissions, whereas the con ...
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Internet Control Message Protocol
The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a supporting protocol in the Internet protocol suite. It is used by network devices, including routers, to send error messages and operational information indicating success or failure when communicating with another IP address. For example, an error is indicated when a requested service is not available or that a host or router could not be reached. ICMP differs from transport protocols such as TCP and UDP in that it is not typically used to exchange data between systems, nor is it regularly employed by end-user network applications (with the exception of some diagnostic tools like ping and traceroute). A separate Internet Control Message Protocol (called ICMPv6) is used with IPv6. Technical details ICMP is part of the Internet protocol suite as defined in RFC 792. ICMP messages are typically used for diagnostic or control purposes or generated in response to errors in IP operations (as specified in RFC 1122). ICMP ...
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IP Protocol Number
This is a list of the IP protocol numbers found in the 8-bit ''Protocol'' field of the IPv4 header and the 8-bit ''Next Header'' field of the IPv6 header. It is an identifier for the encapsulated protocol and determines the layout of the data that immediately follows the header. Because both fields are eight bits wide, the possible values are limited to the 256 values from 0 (0x00) to 255 (0xFF), of which just over half had been allocated Protocol numbers are maintained and published by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). {, class="wikitable" , - ! class="nomobile" , Hex ! Protocol Number !! Keyword !! Protocol !! References/ RFC , - , style="text-align:right" class="nomobile" , 0x00 , style="text-align:right" , 0 , HOPOPT , IPv6 Hop-by-Hop Option , , - , style="text-align:right" class="nomobile" , 0x01 , style="text-align:right" , 1 , ICMP , Internet Control Message Protocol , , - , style="text-align:right" class="nomobile" , 0x02 , style="text-a ...
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