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Huelga Schools (Houston)
Huelga, "strike" or "freedom" schools were alternative schools set up in Houston in order to continue the education of boycotting Mexican-American students between 1970 and 1972. The schools were coordinated by Sister Gloria Gallardo and Tina Reyes. Curriculum for the schools was developed by committee with professor Edward Gonzáles acting as the head. Students learned basic skills such as reading and writing as well as history and culture. Background The Houston Independent School District (HISD) in the late 1960s and early 1970s refused to consider Chicano students as a minority for the purposes of desegregating schools. The Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund (MALDEF) opened a case against HISD, alleging that the district was illegally segregating black and Chicano students from white students. In addition, a group called the Mexican American Education Council (MAEC) was formed to coordinate efforts to protest school segregation. Some people were critical o ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Houston
Houston ( ) is the List of cities in Texas by population, most populous city in the U.S. state of Texas and in the Southern United States. Located in Southeast Texas near Galveston Bay and the Gulf of Mexico, it is the county seat, seat of Harris County, Texas, Harris County, as well as the principal city of the Greater Houston metropolitan area, the fifth-most populous metropolitan statistical area in the United States and the List of Texas metropolitan areas, second-most populous in Texas after Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex, Dallas–Fort Worth. With a population of 2,314,157 in 2023, Houston is the List of United States cities by population, fourth-most populous city in the United States after New York City, Los Angeles, and Chicago, and the List of North American cities by population, sixth-most populous city in North America. Houston is the southeast anchor of the greater megaregion known as the Texas Triangle. Comprising a land area of , Houston is the List of United S ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Mexican Americans
Mexican Americans are Americans of full or partial Mexican descent. In 2022, Mexican Americans comprised 11.2% of the US population and 58.9% of all Hispanic and Latino Americans. In 2019, 71% of Mexican Americans were born in the United States. Mexicans born outside the US make up 53% of the total population of foreign-born Hispanic Americans and 25% of the total foreign-born population. Chicano is a term used by some to describe the unique identity held by Mexican-Americans. The United States is home to the second-largest Mexican community in the world (24% of the entire Mexican-origin population of the world), behind only Mexico. Most Mexican Americans reside in the Southwest, with more than 60% of Mexican Americans living in the states of California and Texas. They have varying degrees of indigenous and European ancestry, with the latter being of mostly Spanish origins. Those of indigenous ancestry descend from one or more of the over 60 indigenous groups in Mexico ( ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Gloria Gallardo
Gloria Graciela Gallardo (October 16, 1938 - February 14, 2012) was a Chicana activist and former religious sister. She is best known for her involvement in the 1970 student boycotts in Houston, coordinating the huelga schools and for co-founding Las Hermanas. Biography Gallardo was born in San Antonio. She became a member of the Sisters of the Holy Ghost. After taking vows, Gallardo began to work what was considered a "rough" part of town, Alazán-Apache Courts in San Antonio. She worked for several years in barrios in San Antonio. In 1969, she was asked to come to Houston to work as the interim director of the Mexican American Education Council (MAEC). In this capacity, she helped support student boycotts against unfair policies, protested and spoke publicly for MAEC. Gallardo was a leader in the Mexican American boycott A boycott is an act of nonviolent resistance, nonviolent, voluntary abstention from a product, person, organisation, or country as an expression of ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Curriculum
In education, a curriculum (; : curriculums or curricula ) is the totality of student experiences that occur in an educational process. The term often refers specifically to a planned sequence of instruction, or to a view of the student's experiences in terms of the educator's or school's instructional goals. A curriculum may incorporate the planned interaction of pupils with instructional content, materials, resources, and processes for evaluating the attainment of educational objectives. Curricula are split into several categories: the explicit, the implicit (including the hidden), the excluded, and the extracurricular.Kelly, A. V. (2009). The curriculum: Theory and practice (pp. 1–55). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Braslavsky, C. (2003). The curriculum. Curricula may be tightly standardized or may include a high level of instructor or learner autonomy. Many countries have national curricula in primary education, primary and secondary education, such as the United Kingdom's Nationa ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Houston Independent School District
The Houston Independent School District (HISD) is the largest Public school (government funded), public school system in Texas, and the eighth-largest in the United States. Houston ISD serves as a community school district for most of the city of Houston and several nearby and insular municipalities in addition to some unincorporated areas. Like most districts in Texas, it is independent school district, independent of the city of Houston and all other municipal and county jurisdictions. The district has its headquarters in the Hattie Mae White Educational Support Center in Houston. In 2016, the school district was rated "met standards" by the Texas Education Agency. History 20th century The Brunner Independent School District merged into Houston schools in 1913-1914. Houston ISD was established in 1923 after the Texas Legislature voted to separate the city's schools from the municipal government. In the 1920s, at the time Edison Oberholtzer was superintendent, Hubert L ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Chicano
Chicano (masculine form) or Chicana (feminine form) is an ethnic identity for Mexican Americans that emerged from the Chicano Movement. In the 1960s, ''Chicano'' was widely reclaimed among Hispanics in the building of a movement toward political empowerment, ethnic solidarity, and pride in being of Indigenous peoples of Mexico, Indigenous descent (with many Nahuatl language in the United States, using the Nahuatl language or Chicano names, names). ''Chicano'' was used in a sense separate from ''Mexican American'' identity. Youth in ''Barrioization, barrios'' rejected cultural assimilation into Mainstream culture, mainstream American culture and embraced their own identity and worldview as a form of empowerment and resistance. The community forged an independent political and cultural movement, sometimes working alongside the Black power movement. The Chicano Movement faltered by the mid-1970s as a result of external and internal pressures. It was under state surveillance, infi ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Desegregation
Racial integration, or simply integration, includes desegregation (the process of ending systematic racial segregation), leveling barriers to association, creating equal opportunity regardless of race, and the development of a culture that draws on diverse traditions, rather than merely bringing a racial minority into the majority culture. Desegregation is largely a legal matter, integration largely a social one. Distinguishing ''integration'' from ''desegregation'' Morris J. MacGregor Jr. in his paper "Integration of the Armed Forces 1940–1969", writes concerning the words ''integration'' and ''desegregation'': In recent years many historians have come to distinguish between these like-sounding words... The movement toward desegregation, breaking down the nation's Jim Crow system, became increasingly popular in the decade after World War II. Integration, on the other hand, Professor Oscar Handlin maintains, implies several things not yet necessarily accepted in all areas o ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Mexican American Legal Defense And Educational Fund
The Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund (MALDEF) is a national non-profit organization, non-profit civil rights organization formed in 1968 by Jack Greenberg to protect the rights of Hispanic and Latino Americans, Latinos in the United States."MALDEF" entry in ''Los Angeles A to Z: An Encyclopedia of the City and County'', by Leonard and Dale Pitt, published by UC Press in 1997. Founded in San Antonio, Texas, it is currently headquartered in Los Angeles, California and maintains regional offices in Sacramento, California, Sacramento, San Antonio, Texas, San Antonio, Chicago, Illinois, Chicago, and Washington, D.C. Background MALDEF was founded in San Antonio in 1968 under the direction of Jack Greenberg. With the help of the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC) and the NAACP Legal Defense Fund (LDF), MALDEF got a $2.2 million grant from the Ford Foundation. The grant provided scholarships for more Mexican-American lawyers. In its first three years, MAL ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Mexican-American Education Council
The Mexican-American Educational Council (MAEC) was a post Chicano-movement non-profit organization in the Houston, Texas area. Its principal goal was to achieve equitable access to public education for Mexican Americans in Texas. History In late 1970, MAEC organized boycotts and walkouts of schools within the Houston Independent School District (HISD) in protest against the district's racist integration orders. In protest, MAEC established "huelga" schools where Mexican American children could attend school while the concerns were resolved. More than 3,500 students participated in the protests. MAEC was formed in the summer of 1970. MAEC was headed by Leonel Castillo and an activist nun, Sister Gloria Gallardo, served as interim director for a while. On August 25, 1970, Castillo spoke at a hastily-planned press conference, explaining the position of MAEC. On August 31, 1970 MAEC began aggressive boycotts, protests, and picketing. These actions lasted approximately three we ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Racism
Racism is the belief that groups of humans possess different behavioral traits corresponding to inherited attributes and can be divided based on the superiority of one Race (human categorization), race or ethnicity over another. It may also mean prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against other people because they are of a different ethnic background. Modern variants of racism are often based in social perceptions of biological differences between peoples. These views can take the form of social actions, practices or beliefs, or political systems in which different races are ranked as inherently superior or inferior to each other, based on presumed shared inheritable traits, abilities, or qualities. There have been attempts to legitimize racist beliefs through scientific means, such as scientific racism, which have been overwhelmingly shown to be unfounded. In terms of political systems (e.g. apartheid) that support the expression of prejudice or aversion in discri ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
African Americans
African Americans, also known as Black Americans and formerly also called Afro-Americans, are an American racial and ethnic group that consists of Americans who have total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. African Americans constitute the second largest ethno-racial group in the U.S. after White Americans. The term "African American" generally denotes descendants of Africans enslaved in the United States. In 2023, an estimated 48.3 million people self-identified as Black, making up 14.4% of the country’s population. This marks a 33% increase since 2000, when there were 36.2 million Black people living in the U.S. African-American history began in the 16th century, with Africans being sold to European slave traders and transported across the Atlantic to the Western Hemisphere. They were sold as slaves to European colonists and put to work on plantations, particularly in the southern colonies. A few were able to achieve freedom th ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
