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History Of Polish Orthography
Old Polish (Pre 1500) Poles began writing in Polish in the 12th century using the Latin alphabet. This alphabet, however, was ill-equipped to deal with Polish phonology, particularly the palatal consonants (now written as '' ś'', '' ź'', '' ć'', '' dź''), the retroflex group (now '' sz'', '' ż'', and '' cz'') as well as the nasal vowels (now written as '' ą'', '' ę''). Consequently, Polish spelling in the Middle Ages was highly inconsistent as writers struggled to adapt the Latin alphabet to the needs of the Polish language. There was no unified system; different writers came up with different systems before the modern Polish orthography was firmly established. In the earliest documents the letter ''c'' could signify ''c'', ''cz'', or ''k'' while the letter ''z'' was used for ''ś'', ''z'', ''ź'', and ''ż''. Writers soon began to experiment with digraphs (combinations of letters), new letters (''ꟁ'' and ''ſ''), and eventually diacritics. 1440 Reform Jakub Parkos ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Locative Case
In grammar, the locative case ( ; abbreviated ) is a grammatical case which indicates a location. In languages using it, the locative case may perform a function which in English would be expressed with such prepositions as "in", "on", "at", and "by". The locative case belongs to the general local cases, together with the lative and ablative case. The locative case exists in many language groups. Indo-European languages The Proto-Indo-European language had a locative case expressing "place where", an adverbial function. The endings are reconstructed as follows: In most later Indo-European languages, the locative case merged into other cases (often genitive or dative) in form and/or function, but some daughter languages retained it as a distinct case. It is found in: * modern Balto-Slavic languages, except Bulgarian and Macedonian, although it is mostly used with prepositions in the other Slavic languages * some classical Indo-European languages, particularly Sanskrit and O ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Instrumental Case
In grammar, the instrumental case ( abbreviated or ) is a grammatical case used to indicate that a noun is the ''instrument'' or means by or with which the subject achieves or accomplishes an action. The noun may be either a physical object or an abstract concept. General discussion The instrumental case appears in this Russian sentence: Here, the inflection of the noun indicates its instrumental role: the nominative ''перо'' changes its ending to become ''пером''. Modern English expresses the instrumental meaning by use of adverbial phrases that begin with the words ''with'', ''by'', or ''using'', followed by the noun indicating the ''instrument'': :''I wrote the note with a pen.'' :''I wrote the note (by) using a pen.'' Technical descriptions often use the phrase "by means of", which is similar to "by use of", as in: :''I wrote the note by means of a pen.'' :''I wrote the note by use of a pen.'' This can be replaced by "via", which is a Latin ablative of the ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Jan Karłowicz
Jan Aleksander Ludwik August Karłowicz (May 28, 1836 – June 14, 1903) was Polish ethnographer, musicologist, composer, linguist, folklorist, lexicographer, dialectologist, one of the first Lithuanianists. Books Most of his books are available online at the resource polona.pl. *O Żydzie wiecznym tułaczu (1873) *O języku litewskim (1875) *Piękna Meluzyna i królewna Wanda (1876) (Beautiful Melusine and Princess Wanda) *Słoworód ludowy (1878) *Przyczynek do zbioru przysłów, piosenek, ucinków i przypowieści od nazw rodowych i miejscowych (1879) *Przysłowia od nazwisk (1879) *O imieniu Polaków i Polski (1881) *Die Mythen, Sagen und Legenden der Zamaiten (1883, 2 volumes) *Chata polska (1884) *Systematyka pieśni ludu polskiego (1885) *Podania i bajki ludowe zebrane na Litwie (1887) *Imiona własne polskich miejsc i ludzi od zatrudnień (1887) *Słownik wyrazów obcego a mniej jasnego pochodzenia (1894–1905, 3 volumes) *Słownik gwar polskich (1900–1911, 6 volumes) (Di ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Antoni Kalina
Antoni Kalina (1846–1905) was a Polish activist, ethnographer and ethnologist, and rector of the Lviv University The Ivan Franko National University of Lviv (named after Ivan Franko, ) is a state-sponsored university in Lviv, Ukraine. Since 1940 the university is named after Ukrainian poet Ivan Franko. The university is the oldest institution of highe .... 1846 births 1905 deaths Polish activists Ethnographers from Austria-Hungary Rectors of universities in Austria-Hungary Polish ethnographers Polish ethnologists University of Lviv rectors Members of the Polish Ethnological Society {{Poland-academic-bio-stub ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Aleksander Brückner
Aleksander Brückner (; 29 January 1856 – 24 May 1939) was a Polish scholar of Slavic languages and literature (Slavistics), philologist, lexicographer, and historian of literature. He is among the most notable Slavicists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and the first to prepare complete monographs on the history of the Polish language and culture. He published more than 1,500 titles and discovered the oldest extant prose text in Polish (the '' Holy Cross Sermons''). Life Brückner was born in Brzeżany (Berezhany) in Galicia, Austrian Empire, to an Austro-Polish family who had moved there from Stryj three generations earlier. He studied at the German Gymnasium in Lwów (Lemberg) under Omelian Ohonovsky, in Vienna under Franz Miklosich, and in Berlin under Vatroslav Jagić. Brückner first taught at Lwów ( Lwów University). In 1876 he received a doctorate at the University of Vienna and in 1878 his habilitation for a study on Slavic settlements around Mag ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Jan Baudouin De Courtenay
Jan Niecisław Ignacy Baudouin de Courtenay, also Ivan Alexandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay (; 13 March 1845 – 3 November 1929), was a Polish linguist and Slavic studies, Slavist, best known for his theory of the phoneme and allophone, phonetic alternations. For most of his life Baudouin de Courtenay worked at Imperial Russian universities: Kazan University, Kazan (1874–1883), Tartu University, Dorpat (now Estonia) (1883–1893), Jagiellonian University, Kraków (1893–1899) in Austria-Hungary, and St. Petersburg University, St. Petersburg (1900–1918).Бодуэн де Куртенэ, Иван Александрович // Новая иллюстрированная энциклопедия. Кн. 3. Би-Ве. — М.: Большая Российская энциклопедия (издательство), Большая Российская энциклопедия, 2003. — 256 с.: ил. — С. 27 — 28. — (кн. 3), . In 1919–1929 he was a professor at the re ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Academy Of Learning
Academy of Learning (; AU) was a primary Polish scientific institution during the annexation of Poland established in 1871. It was founded in Kraków as a continuation of the ''Kraków Scientific Society'' (''Towarzystwo Naukowe Krakowskie''). The institution began activity two years later, in 1873. At first, it focused on scholars from Kraków, however, it soon expanded its activity to Polish scholars from all annexed territories, along with Polish emigration. Its main goals were to organize, support and conduct learning, plus represent Polish scientists and scholars from all over the world. AU changed its statute and in 1919 began activity as the Polish Academy of Learning The Polish Academy of Arts and Sciences or Polish Academy of Learning (, PAU), headquartered in Kraków and founded in 1872, is one of two institutions in contemporary Poland having the nature of an academy of sciences (the other being the Po ... (''Polska Akademia Umiejętności''; PAU) after Poland's ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Warsaw Society Of Friends Of Learning
The Warsaw Society of Friends of Science (, ''TPN'') was one of the earliest Polish scientific societies, active in Warsaw from 1800 to 1832. Name The Society was also known as ''Warszawskie Królewskie Towarzystwo Przyjaciół Nauk'' (Warsaw Royal Society of Friends of Sciences). Sometimes the word "Royal" was omitted. History Though the Society was founded in 1800, its traditions harked back to the Thursday dinners that had been held in the final decades of the 18th century by Poland's last king, Stanisław August Poniatowski. From 1824 the Society was headquartered in the Staszic Palace (after its renovation in 1820–23), purchased for the Society by one of its most prominent members, Stanisław Staszic. In 1828 the Society had 185 members. The Society flourished in the Duchy of Warsaw and Congress Poland, but was eventually dissolved by the Russian authorities in the aftermath of the failed November Uprising of 1830–31, when many Polish cultural organizations were deleg ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
New Testament
The New Testament (NT) is the second division of the Christian biblical canon. It discusses the teachings and person of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus, as well as events relating to Christianity in the 1st century, first-century Christianity. The New Testament's background, the first division of the Christian Bible, is called the Old Testament, which is based primarily upon the Hebrew Bible; together they are regarded as Sacred Scripture by Christians. The New Testament is a collection of 27 Christianity, Christian texts written in Koine Greek by various authors, forming the second major division of the Christian Bible. It includes four Gospel, gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, epistles attributed to Paul the Apostle, Paul and other authors, and the Book of Revelation. The Development of the New Testament canon, New Testament canon developed gradually over the first few centuries of Christianity through a complex process of debate, rejection of Heresy, heretical texts, and ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Grapheme
In linguistics, a grapheme is the smallest functional unit of a writing system. The word ''grapheme'' is derived from Ancient Greek ('write'), and the suffix ''-eme'' by analogy with ''phoneme'' and other emic units. The study of graphemes is called '' graphemics''. The concept of graphemes is abstract and similar to the notion in computing of a character. (A specific geometric shape that represents any particular grapheme in a given typeface is called a glyph.) Conceptualization There are two main opposing grapheme concepts. In the so-called ''referential conception'', graphemes are interpreted as the smallest units of writing that correspond with sounds (more accurately phonemes). In this concept, the ''sh'' in the written English word ''shake'' would be a grapheme because it represents the phoneme /ʃ/. This referential concept is linked to the ''dependency hypothesis'' that claims that writing merely depicts speech. By contrast, the ''analogical concept'' defines gr ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
