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Das Ding An Sich
In Kantian philosophy, the thing-in-itself () is the status of objects as they are, independent of representation and observation. The concept of the thing-in-itself was introduced by the German philosopher Immanuel Kant, and over the following centuries was met with controversy among later philosophers. It is closely related to Kant's concept of noumena or the objects of inquiry, as opposed to phenomena, its manifestations. Kantian philosophy In his doctrine of transcendental idealism, Kant argued the sum of all objects, the empirical world, is a complex of appearances whose existence and connection occur only in our representations. Kant introduces the thing-in-itself as follows: Criticism F. H. Jacobi The first to criticize the concept of a thing-in-itself was F. H. Jacobi, with the expression: G. E. Schulze The anonymously published work ''Aenesidemus'' was one of the most successful attacks against the project of Kant. According to Kant's teaching, things-in-themse ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Kantian Philosophy
Kantianism () is the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, a Germans, German philosopher born in Königsberg, Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia). The term ''Kantianism'' or ''Kantian'' is sometimes also used to describe contemporary positions in philosophy of mind, epistemology, and ethics. Ethics Kantian ethics is Deontology, deontological, revolving entirely around duty rather than the moral actor or the consequences of the actions. All actions are performed in accordance with some underlying Maxim (philosophy), maxim or principle, which are vastly different from each other; it is according to this that the moral worth of any action is judged. Kant's ethics are founded on his view of rationality as the ultimate good and his belief that all people are fundamentally rational beings. This led to the most important part of Kant's ethics, the formulation of the categorical imperative, which is the criterion for whether a maxim is good or bad. Simply put, this criterion amounts to a thoug ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Johann Gottlieb Fichte
Johann Gottlieb Fichte (; ; 19 May 1762 – 29 January 1814) was a German philosopher who became a founding figure of the philosophical movement known as German idealism, which developed from the theoretical and ethical writings of Immanuel Kant. Recently, philosophers and scholars have begun to appreciate Fichte as an important philosopher in his own right due to his original insights into the nature of self-consciousness or self-awareness. Fichte was also the originator of '' thesis–antithesis–synthesis'',"Review of '' Aenesidemus''""Rezension des Aenesidemus" '' Allgemeine Literatur-Zeitung'', 11–12 February 1794). Trans. Daniel Breazeale. In (See also: ''FTP'', p. 46; Breazeale 1980–81, pp. 545–68; Breazeale and Rockmore 1994, p. 19; Breazeale 2013, pp. 36–37; Waibel, Breazeale, Rockmore 2010, p. 157: "Fichte believes that the I must be grasped as the ''unity'' of synthesis and analysis.") an idea that is often erroneously attributed to Hegel. Like Descartes ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Concepts In Metaphysics
A concept is an abstract idea that serves as a foundation for more concrete principles, thoughts, and beliefs. Concepts play an important role in all aspects of cognition. As such, concepts are studied within such disciplines as linguistics, psychology, and philosophy, and these disciplines are interested in the logical and psychological structure of concepts, and how they are put together to form thoughts and sentences. The study of concepts has served as an important flagship of an emerging interdisciplinary approach, cognitive science. In contemporary philosophy, three understandings of a concept prevail: * mental representations, such that a concept is an entity that exists in the mind (a mental object) * abilities peculiar to cognitive agents (mental states) * Fregean senses, abstract objects rather than a mental object or a mental state Concepts are classified into a hierarchy, higher levels of which are termed "superordinate" and lower levels termed "subordinate". Add ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
George Berkeley
George Berkeley ( ; 12 March 168514 January 1753), known as Bishop Berkeley (Bishop of Cloyne of the Anglican Church of Ireland), was an Anglo-Irish philosopher, writer, and clergyman who is regarded as the founder of "immaterialism", a philosophical theory he developed which was later referred to as "subjective idealism" by others. As a leading figure in the empiricism movement, he was one of the most cited philosophers of Age of Enlightenment, 18th-century Europe, and his works had a profound influence on the views of other thinkers, especially Immanuel Kant and David Hume. Interest in his ideas increased significantly in the United States during the early 19th century, and as a result, the University of California, Berkeley, as well as the city of Berkeley, California, were both named after him. In 1709, Berkeley published his first major work ''s:An Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision, An Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision'', in which he discussed the limitations of huma ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Prolegomena To Any Future Metaphysics
''Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics That Will Be Able to Present Itself as a Science'' () is a book by the German philosopher Immanuel Kant, published in 1783, two years after the first edition of his ''Critique of Pure Reason''. One of Kant's shorter works, it contains a summary of the ''Critique''‘s main conclusions, sometimes by arguments Kant had not used in the ''Critique''. Kant characterizes his more accessible approach here as an " analytic" one, as opposed to the ''Critique''‘s "synthetic" examination of successive faculties of the mind and their principles. The book is also intended as a polemic. Kant was disappointed by the poor reception of the ''Critique of Pure Reason'', and here he repeatedly emphasizes the importance of its critical project for the very existence of metaphysics as a science. The final appendix contains a response to an unfavorable review of the ''Critique''. Contents Introduction Kant declared that the ''Prolegomena'' are for the us ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Philipp Mainländer
Philipp Mainländer (; 5 October 1841 – 1 April 1876) was a German philosopher and poet. Born Philipp Batz, he later changed his name to "Mainländer" in homage to his hometown, Offenbach am Main. In his central work, (''The Philosophy of Redemption'' or ''The Philosophy of Salvation'') — according to Theodor Lessing, "perhaps the most radical Philosophical pessimism, system of pessimism known to philosophical literature" — Mainländer proclaims that life is of negative value, and that "the will, ignited by the knowledge that non-being is better than being, is the supreme principle of morality." Biography Early life and career Born in Offenbach am Main, on 5 October 1841 "as a child of marital rape", Philipp Mainländer grew up the youngest of six siblings. One of his brothers was mentally ill, according to Cesare Lombroso in ''The Man of Genius'', as had been one of his grandfathers who had died of suicide at the age of 33. Mainländer attended the Realschule in ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Parerga And Paralipomena
''Parerga and Paralipomena'' (Greek for "Appendices" and "Omissions", respectively; ) is a collection of philosophical reflections by Arthur Schopenhauer published in 1851. The selection was compiled not as a summation of or introduction to Schopenhauer's philosophy, but as augmentary readings for those who had already embraced it, although the author maintained it would be comprehensible and of interest to the uninitiated nevertheless. The collection is divided into two volumes, covering first the ''parerga'' and thereafter the ''paralipomena'' to that philosophy. The ''parerga'' are six extended essays intended as supplementary to the author's thought. The ''paralipomena'', shorter elaborations divided by topic into thirty-one subheadings, cover material hitherto unaddressed by the philosopher but deemed by him to be complementary to the ''parerga''. Contents Volume One (''Parerga'') * Preface * Sketch of a History of the Doctrine of the Ideal and the Real * Fragments for th ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Arthur Schopenhauer
Arthur Schopenhauer ( ; ; 22 February 1788 – 21 September 1860) was a German philosopher. He is known for his 1818 work ''The World as Will and Representation'' (expanded in 1844), which characterizes the Phenomenon, phenomenal world as the manifestation of a blind and irrational noumenon, noumenal Will (philosophy), will. Building on the transcendental idealism of Immanuel Kant, Schopenhauer developed an atheistic metaphysical and ethical system that rejected the contemporaneous ideas of German idealism. Schopenhauer was among the first philosophers in the Western philosophy, Western tradition to share and affirm significant tenets of Indian philosophy, such as asceticism, denial of the self (philosophy), self, and the notion of the Maya (religion), world-as-appearance. His work has been described as an exemplary manifestation of philosophical pessimism. Though his work failed to garner substantial attention during his lifetime, he had a posthumous impact across various ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
The World As Will And Representation
''The World as Will and Representation'' (''WWR''; , ''WWV''), sometimes translated as ''The World as Will and Idea'', is the central work of the German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer. The first edition was published in late 1818, with the date 1819 on the title page. A second, two-volume edition appeared in 1844: volume one was an edited version of the 1818 edition, while volume two consisted of commentary on the ideas expounded in volume one. A third expanded edition was published in 1859, the year before Schopenhauer's death. In 1948, an abridged version was edited by Thomas Mann. In the summer of 1813, Schopenhauer submitted his doctoral dissertation—''On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason''—and was awarded a doctorate from the University of Jena. After spending the following winter in Weimar, he lived in Dresden and published his treatise '' On Vision and Colours'' in 1816. Schopenhauer spent the next several years working on his chief work, ''The ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Wissenschaftslehre (Fichte)
''Foundations of the Science of Knowledge'' () is a 1794/1795 book by the German philosopher Johann Gottlieb Fichte. Based on lectures he had delivered as a professor of philosophy at the University of Jena Scruton 2000. p. 208. Fichte created his own system of transcendental philosophy in this book. Ideas ''Science of Knowledge'' first established Fichte's independent philosophy. The contents of the book, divided into eleven sections, were crucial in the way the thinker grounded philosophy as – for the first time – a part of epistemology. In this book Fichte also claimed that an "experiencer" must be tacitly aware that he is experiencing in order to lead to "noticing". This articulated his view that an individual's experience is essentially the experiencing of the act of experiencing so that his so-called "Absolutely Unconditioned Principle" of all experience is that "''the I posits itself''". Reception In 1798 the German romantic Friedrich Schlegel identified the ''Wi ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Gottlob Ernst Schulze
Gottlob Ernst Schulze (; 23 August 1761 – 14 January 1833) was a German philosopher, born in Heldrungen in the Electorate of Saxony (modern-day Thuringia, Germany). He was the grandfather of the pioneering biochemist Ernst Schulze. Biography Schulze was a professor at Wittenberg, Helmstedt, and Göttingen. His most influential book was ''Aenesidemus'' (1792), a skeptical polemic against Immanuel Kant's ''Critique of Pure Reason'' and Karl Leonhard Reinhold's ''Philosophy of the Elements''. In Göttingen, he advised his student Arthur Schopenhauer to concentrate on the philosophies of Plato and Kant. This advice had a strong influence on Schopenhauer's philosophy. In the winter semester of 1810 and 1811, Schopenhauer studied both psychology and metaphysics under Schulze. Schulze died in Göttingen Göttingen (, ; ; ) is a college town, university city in Lower Saxony, central Germany, the Capital (political), capital of Göttingen (district), the eponymous district. The ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
