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Guilder
Guilder is the English translation of the Dutch and German ''gulden'', originally shortened from Middle High German ''guldin pfenninc'' (" gold penny"). This was the term that became current in the southern and western parts of the Holy Roman Empire for the Fiorino d'oro (introduced in 1252 in the Republic of Florence). Hence, the name has often been interchangeable with ''florin'' (currency sign ''ƒ'' or ''fl.''). The guilder is also the name of several currencies used in Europe and the former colonies of the Dutch Empire. Gold guilder The guilder or gulden was the name of several gold coins used during the Holy Roman Empire. It first referred to the Italian gold florin, introduced in the 13th century. It then referred to the Rhenish gulden (''florenus Rheni'') issued by several states of the Holy Roman Empire from the 14th century. The Rhenish gulden was issued by Trier, Cologne and Mainz in the 14th and 15th centuries. Basel minted its own ''Apfelgulden'' between 1 ...
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Dutch Guilder
The guilder (, ) or florin was the currency of the Netherlands from 1434 until 2002, when it was replaced by the euro. The Dutch name was a Middle Dutch adjective meaning 'golden', and reflects the fact that, when first introduced in 1434, its value was about equal to (i.e., it was on par with) the Italian gold florin. The Dutch guilder was a reserve currency in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. Between 1999 and 2002, the guilder was officially a "national subunit" of the euro. However, physical payments could only be made in guilders, as no euro coins or banknotes were available. The exact exchange rate, still relevant for old contracts and for exchange of the old currency for euros at the central bank, is exactly 2.20371 Dutch guilders for 1 euro. Inverted, this gives approximately 0.453780 euros for 1 guilder. Derived from the Dutch guilder are the Netherlands Antillean guilder (still in use in Curaçao and Sint Maarten) and the Surinamese guilder (replaced in 20 ...
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Rhenish Gulden
The Rhenish ''gulden'' or Rhenish ''guilder'' (; ) was a gold, standard currency coin of the Rhineland in the 14th and 15th centuries. They weighed between 3.4 and 3.8 grams (). History The Rhenish gold ''gulden'' was created when the electors of Cologne, Trier and Mainz were rewarded for their support in the election of Charles IV with a right to mint gold coins (), a right derived from the Golden Bull. Trier was given the privilege on 25 November 1346, Cologne on 26 November 1346 and Mainz on 22 January 1354. The Rhenish ''gulden'' or ''florin'' began in 1354 as a copy of the Florentine ''florin'' (weight th a Cologne Mark of gold, 23 karats fine, or 3.43 g fine gold). However, by the early 15th century it has lost nearly one quarter of its gold content. In 1419 it was th a Cologne Mark of gold, 19 karats fine; hence 2.76 g fine gold. As a result of the widespread minting of gold ''guldens'' by the electors of Cologne, Mainz, Trier and the Electorate of the Palatinate (R ...
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Florin
The Florentine florin was a gold coin (in Italian ''Fiorino d'oro'') struck from 1252 to 1533 with no significant change in its design or metal content standard during that time. It had 54 grains () of nominally pure or 'fine' gold with a purchasing power difficult to estimate (and variable) but ranging according to social grouping and perspective from approximately 140 to 1,000 modern US dollars. The name of the coin comes from the ''Giglio bottonato'' ( it), the floral emblem of the city, which is represented at the head of the coin. History The ''fiorino d'oro'' (gold florin) was minted in the Republic of Florence after the sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade disrupted the minting of fine gold coins in the Byzantine Empire. It came to be accepted across Europe like the Byzantine Solidus had been. The territorial usage of the ''lira'' and the florin often overlapped; where the lira was used for smaller transactions (wages, food purchases), the florin was for la ...
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Austro-Hungarian Florin
The Austro-Hungarian gulden (German language, German), also known as the florin (German language, German & Croatian language, Croatian), forint (Hungarian language, Hungarian; ), or zloty (; ; ), was the currency of the Habsburg monarchy, lands of the House of Habsburg between 1754 and 1892 (known as the Austrian Empire from 1804 to 1867 and the Austria-Hungary, Austro-Hungarian Monarchy after 1867), when it was replaced by the Austro-Hungarian krone as part of the introduction of the gold standard. In Austria, the gulden was initially divided into 60 kreuzers (German; ; ; ; ; ). The currency was decimalisation, decimalized in 1857, using the same names for the unit and subunit. Name The name ''Gulden'' was used on pre-1867 Austrian banknotes and on the German language side of the post-1867 banknotes. In southern Germany, the word South German gulden, Gulden was the standard word for a major currency unit. After 1867 Austrian coins used the name ''Florin''. "Florin" is derived from ...
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Florin (Italian Coin)
The Florentine florin was a gold coin (in Italian ''Fiorino d'oro'') struck from 1252 to 1533 with no significant change in its design or metal content standard during that time. It had 54 grains () of nominally pure or 'fine' gold with a purchasing power difficult to estimate (and variable) but ranging according to social grouping and perspective from approximately 140 to 1,000 modern US dollars. The name of the coin comes from the ''Giglio bottonato'' ( it), the floral emblem of the city, which is represented at the head of the coin. History The ''fiorino d'oro'' (gold florin) was minted in the Republic of Florence after the sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade disrupted the minting of fine gold coins in the Byzantine Empire. It came to be accepted across Europe like the Byzantine Solidus had been. The territorial usage of the ''lira'' and the florin often overlapped; where the lira was used for smaller transactions (wages, food purchases), the florin was for la ...
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Guldengroschen
The ''Guldengroschen'' or ''Guldiner'' was a large silver coin originally minted in Tirol in 1486, but which was introduced into the Duchy of Saxony in 1500. The name "''Guldengroschen''" came from the fact that it has an equivalent denomination value in silver relative to that of the '' goldgulden'' (60 '' kreuzer''). In the latter years of the 1470s and early years of the 1480s Sigismund of Austria issued decrees that reformed the poor state of his region's coinage by improving the silver fineness back to a level not seen in centuries (.937 pure) and created denominations larger than the ubiquitous, but fairly low valued ''Groschen'' of 4 to 6 '' Kreuzer'' that were in use. In 1484, small numbers of "half ''guldengroschens''" valued at 30 kreuzer were issued. This was a revolutionary leap in denomination from the smaller pieces, and surpassed even the large '' testones'' of Italy which were the highest weight coins in use. Finally, in 1486 the full sized ''guldengroschen'' ...
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Reichsthaler
The ''Reichsthaler'' (; modern spelling Reichstaler), or more specifically the ''Reichsthaler specie'', was a standard thaler silver coin introduced by the Holy Roman Empire in 1566 for use in all German states, minted in various versions for the next 300 years, and containing 25–26 grams fine silver. ''North German thaler, Reichsthaler'' was also the name of a currency unit worth less than the ''Reichsthaler specie'' introduced by several North German states from the 17th century; discussed separately under ''North German thaler''. Several old books confusingly use the same term ''Reichsthaler'' for the Speciesthaler, specie silver coin as well as the currency unit. This is disambiguated by referring to the full-valued coin as the ''Speciesthaler, Reichsthaler specie'' and the lower-valued currency unit as the ''Reichsthaler currency (courant, kurant)''. History The ''Reichsthaler'' – literally, the ''dollar of the realm'' – was the most successful standard silver coin re ...
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Kreuzer
The Kreuzer (), in English also spelled kreutzer ( ), was a coin and unit of currency in the southern German states prior to the introduction of the German gold mark in 1871–1873, and in Austria and Switzerland. After 1760 it was made of copper. In south Germany the kreuzer was typically worth 4 Pfennige and there were 60 Kreuzer to a gulden. ''Kreuzer'' was abbreviated as ''Kr'', ''kr'', ''K'' or ''Xr''. Early history The Kreuzer goes back to a ''Groschen'' coin minted in Merano in South Tyrol in 1271 (the so-called ''etscher Kreuzer''). Because of the double cross (German: ''Kreuz'') on the face of the coin, it was soon given the name ''Kreuzer''. It spread in the 15th and 16th centuries throughout the south of the German-speaking area. The Imperial Coinage Act of 1551 made them the unit for small silver coins. In 1559 a value of 60 Kreuzer to 1 Gulden had been adopted throughout the southern states of the Holy Roman Empire, but the northern German states declined to jo ...
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Reichsmünzordnung
The ''Reichsmünzordnung'' (, " imperial minting ordinance") was an attempt to unify the numerous disparate coins in use in the various states of the Holy Roman Empire in the 16th century. The ordinance was issued in several steps at Diets at Augsburg during the 1530s to 1560s, but it was never adopted entirely by all princes within the empire. A first ''Reichsmünzordnung'' was issued by Charles V in 1524 at Esslingen, declaring the Cologne Mark The Cologne mark is an obsolete unit of weight (or mass) equivalent to 233.856 grams (about 3,609 grains). The Cologne mark was in use from the 11th century onward. It came to be used as the base unit for a number of currency standards, including ... as the general standard for coin weights. But due to protests by the larger principalities of the empire, the ordinance was never implemented. In 1551, the Kreuzer was introduced as the standard for small silver coinage, with 72 Kreuzer being equivalent to a Gulden, or a silver Gul ...
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Cologne Mark
The Cologne mark is an obsolete unit of weight (or mass) equivalent to 233.856 grams (about 3,609 grains). The Cologne mark was in use from the 11th century onward. It came to be used as the base unit for a number of currency standards, including the Lübeck monetary system, which was important in northern Europe in the late Middle Ages, and the coinage systems of the Holy Roman Empire, most significantly the 1754 conventionsthaler, defined as of a Cologne mark. The conventionsthaler replaced the reichsthaler, of a Cologne mark. The mark is defined as half a Cologne ( pound). A is divided into 16 ( ounces) of 29.23 grams (about 451 grains). Each is subdivided into 2 , 8 , and 32 . This ounce is the basis of several other pounds, including in England the Tower pound (12 ounces), the merchant's pound (15 ounces), and the London pound (16 ounces). The Cologne (2 marks) should not be confused with the of around 350 grams, 5400 grains, used in the Nuremberg apothecaries' s ...
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Burgundian Netherlands
The Burgundian Netherlands were those parts of the Low Countries ruled by the Dukes of Burgundy during the Burgundian Age between 1384 and 1482. Within their Burgundian State, which itself belonged partly to the Holy Roman Empire and partly to the Kingdom of France, the dukes united these lowlands into a political union that went beyond a personal union as it gained central institutions for the first time (such as the States General). The period began with Duke Philip the Bold taking office as count of Flanders and Artois in 1384 and lasted until the death of Duchess Mary of Burgundy in 1482 after which the Burgundian State was dissolved, and the Low Countries came under the rule of the Habsburg monarchy by inheritance. In the 15th century, it was customary to refer to the Low Countries where the Duke of Burgundy ruled and usually resided as ''les pays de par-deçà'' meaning "the lands over here" as opposed to Burgundy proper (in Central France) which was designated ''les ...
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Behrens 66
Behrens is a surname of Germanic origin. Notable people with the surname include: Politics/social * Alice Behrens (1885–1952), British Girl Guide * Betty Behrens (1904–1989), British historian * Jens Behrens (born 1978), German politician * Katja Behrens (1942–2021), German writer and translator * Heidi Behrens-Benedict (born 1948), American politician * Manfred Behrens (born 1956), German politician * Rob Behrens (born 1952), UK Parliamentary and Health Service Ombudsman Design and arts * Peter Behrens (1868–1940), German architect * Paul Behrens (1893–1984), German clock maker * Hanne Behrens (born 1950), Danish goldsmith * Howard Behrens (1933–2014), American artist Entertainment * Jack Behrens (1935–2024), Canadian composer * Heinz Behrens (1932–2022), German actor * Hildegard Behrens Hildegard Behrens (9 February 1937 – 18 August 2009) was a German operatic soprano with a wide repertoire including Wagner, Weber, Mozart, Richard Strauss, ...
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